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Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation

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A special issue of Earth (ISSN 2673-4834).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2026 | Viewed by 12265

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Editors

Dr. Sanja Obradović Strålman

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
Interests: sustainability; tourism; sustainable tourism; sustainable development; tourism development

Dr. Nikola Milentijević

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Guest Editor

Department of Geography, Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Priština, Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia
Interests: physical geography; climatology; climate changes; meteorology; climate indices; aridity; environmental monitoring
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Dr. Ioannis Charalampopoulos

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Crop Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: agroclimatology; bioclimatology; biometeorology; landscape change; computational data analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue aims to explore the synergy between physical geography, ecotourism, and the protection of nature in promoting sustainable landscape management. As tourism increasingly intersects with fragile natural environments, understanding the physical characteristics of landscapes and their ecological sensitivities becomes essential for planning, conservation, and policy-making.

We welcome the submission of interdisciplinary articles that analyze how physical geography informs sustainable ecotourism practices, assess the impacts of tourism on natural landscapes, or propose innovative conservation strategies grounded in geomorphology, hydrology, biogeography, and climate science.

The scope of this Special Issue includes, but is not limited to, the following topics:

The role of physical geography in site selection and planning in ecotourism;
Geospatial analysis (GIS, remote sensing, UAV/drone surveys) of impacts of tourism and land-cover change;
Carrying capacity and vulnerability mapping of tourist areas;
Best practices in integrating tourism with conservation policy, zoning, fees, and permit systems;
Protected-area visitor management, recreational ecology design, and low-impact trail development;
Community-based ecotourism and landscape preservation;
Climate change implications for ecotourism in sensitive regions;
Natural hazards and tourism risk assessment;
Site selection and planning based on geomorphology, hydrological resilience, and landscape vulnerability;
Carrying capacity assessments, vulnerability mapping, and risk analysis for natural hazards;
Valuation of ecosystem services and nature-based solutions (e.g., green infrastructure, dune or peatland restoration);
Blue–green space integration, sustainable mobility planning, and climate change adaptation for sensitive regions;
Technology-enhanced visitor experience and real-time crowd analytics (AR/VR, mobile apps);
Environmental education and visitor awareness: interpretive programs, learning trails, community outreach;
Monitoring and indicators: long-term biodiversity, water quality and visitor-pressure tracking;
Geo-heritage interpretation and cultural landscapes: integrating local/indigenous knowledge;
Socio-economic assessments of ecotourism: livelihood impacts, benefit-sharing, valuation studies;
Karst geomorphology and cave dynamics: processes shaping karst landscapes, speleogenetic mapping, and implications for underground ecotourism;
Slope stability and erosion control: assessment of landslide susceptibility, sediment budgets, and nature-based mitigation measures along hiking trails;
Paleoclimate proxies and geo-heritage: using soils, fluvial sediments, and speleothem records to interpret past environments and enrich visitor interpretation.
Natural-hazard geomorphology: volcanic, seismic or glacial hazard mapping and risk-informed trail design in vulnerable mountain or coastal destinations.

Dr. Sanja Obradović Strålman
Dr. Nikola Milentijević
Dr. Ioannis Charalampopoulos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Earth is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

physical geography
ecotourism planning
geomorphology
gis and remote sensing
carrying capacity
ecosystem services
community engagement
protected‐area management
climate adaptation
agroclimate
bioclimate
nature‐based solutions

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

25 pages, 9356 KB

Open AccessArticle

Precipitation-Driven Land Cover Dynamics in Türkiye: A Multi-Dataset Assessment Using CHIRPS, TerraClimate, and TRMM

by Mehmet Ali Çelik, Adile Bilik, Figen Akpınar and Yasin Paşa

Earth 2026, 7(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth7040130 - 4 Aug 2026

Viewed by 512

Abstract

This study investigates the spatiotemporal dynamics of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) along precipitation gradients across Türkiye by integrating high-resolution satellite-based precipitation datasets (CHIRPS, TerraClimate, and TRMM) with the European Space Agency (ESA) WorldCover (10 m) product and multi-sensor Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) composites (Landsat, MODIS, Sentinel-2). Türkiye’s heterogeneous climate, characterized by a sharp contrast between humid coastal belts and semi-arid interiors, serves as a natural laboratory to assess ecosystem responses to moisture availability. The results reveal a systematic and non-linear transformation of LULC classes as precipitation increases. In low-rainfall zones (200–400 mm), agricultural activities and bare surfaces predominate, reflecting human-induced land management in water-constrained environments. A critical ecological threshold was identified between 400 mm and 700 mm, where grassland areas expand rapidly, becoming the dominant class. Beyond the 900 mm isohyet, forest cover exhibits a sharp increase, approaching nearly 100% dominance in regions exceeding 1200 mm, effectively displacing other LULC categories. Comparative analysis of precipitation products shows that while all datasets capture the “coastal-wet/inland-dry” pattern, TRMM tends to overestimate winter precipitation (exceeding 100 mm), whereas CHIRPS and TerraClimate provide more conservative estimates (75–80 mm). Overlay analyses between seasonal NDVI and precipitation confirm a pronounced “time-lag effect” in vegetation phenology. Despite peak precipitation occurring in winter (~75 mm), NDVI reaches its minimum (~0.03) due to thermal limitations and dormancy. Conversely, vegetation greenness peaks during the dry summer months (NDVI ~0.14 to 0.40), utilizing antecedent soil moisture stored during the spring recharge. High-resolution Sentinel-2 data proved superior in delineating micro-topographic vegetation responses compared to Landsat and MODIS. These findings provide a scientific baseline for sustainable land management and climate adaptation strategies, highlighting that precipitation thresholds are the primary determinants of Türkiye’s ecological boundaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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21 pages, 8663 KB

Open AccessArticle

Landscape Transformation, Forest Fragmentation, and Structural Connectivity Along an Edge-to-Core Gradient in a Protected Miombo Woodland of the DR Congo

by François Duse Dukuku, Médard Mpanda Mukenza, John Kikuni Tchowa, Joel Mobunda Tiko, Julien Bwazani Balandi, Jan Bogaert, Dieu-donné N’tambwe Nghonda and Yannick Useni Sikuzani

Earth 2026, 7(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth7040126 - 30 Jul 2026

Viewed by 336

Abstract

Understanding how land-use change affects habitat fragmentation and connectivity is essential for assessing landscape degradation and conservation effectiveness in protected areas globally. It is particularly acute in tropical protected areas where anthropogenic pressures are intensifying. This study investigated long-term landscape dynamics, forest fragmentation, and structural connectivity in the Bena Mulumbu Hunting Domain, a Category VI protected area located in the Miombo woodland region of southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Landsat imagery acquired in 1995, 2005, 2015, and 2025 was classified using the Random Forest algorithm into six land-cover classes (Miombo woodland, savanna, agricultural land, mining areas, built-up/bare land, and water bodies) to quantify land-cover changes over 30 years. Landscape composition was assessed using the percentage of landscape (PLAND), Shannon diversity metrics, and transition analyses. At the same time, fragmentation and structural connectivity of Miombo woodland were evaluated along an edge-to-core gradient (0–2 km, 2–4 km, 4–6 km, and >6 km) using landscape metrics. Results showed that savanna remained the dominant land-cover type throughout the study period. However, the landscape underwent progressive reorganization characterized by recurrent transitions among Miombo woodland, savanna, and agricultural land, leading to increased spatial heterogeneity. Fragmentation analyses revealed significant spatial differences in total core area among zones (Kruskal–Wallis: H = 8.12, p = 0.044); however, after normalization by zone area, no consistent edge-to-core gradient was observed for core habitat proportion, indicating that raw differences primarily reflect zone size rather than a systematic ecological gradient. Despite increasing fragmentation, structural connectivity remained high across the hunting domain. The CONNECT index increased significantly from the edge toward the core zone (p = 0.003), highlighting better-connected forest networks in interior sectors. These findings suggest that the Bena Mulumbu Hunting Domain is experiencing an intermediate stage of landscape transformation, where forest fragmentation is evident but has not yet resulted in widespread connectivity loss. Maintaining existing forest cores and connectivity corridors should therefore be prioritized to prevent further degradation of ecological integrity. These findings challenge the assumption that landscape degradation in protected tropical Miombo woodlands necessarily follows a simple edge-to-core gradient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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23 pages, 634 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecological and Institutional Determinants of Visitor Satisfaction in Protected Tourism Destinations—Evidence from National Marine Park of Zakynthos

by Igor Trišić

Earth 2026, 7(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth7030102 - 15 Jun 2026

Viewed by 1125

Abstract

This study investigated the influence of the National Marine Park of Zakynthos (NMP) on overall tourist satisfaction, with a particular focus on the conservation of the endangered loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). Using a quantitative methodology on a hybrid sample of 1216 respondents, the research framework was validated via exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The measurement model analyzed visitor attitudes across two primary dimensions: ecological destination factors and institutional management factors. The multiple linear regression analysis indicated that both groups of latent factors contributed significantly to tourist satisfaction (R² = 0.359, p < 0.001). The study revealed high environmental awareness among visitors, who supported spatial–behavioural restrictions and expressed a strong willingness to contribute to protection programs through monetary donations. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that strict biodiversity conservation is not a barrier but rather a critical asset that enhances the destination’s sustainable tourism value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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28 pages, 17576 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Soil Loss by Water Erosion at a Large Basin Scale: A Case Study of the Cheliff Basin, Algeria

by Mohammed Achite, Pandurang Choudhari, Abderrezak Kamel Toubal, Priyanshu Nathawat, Nehal Elshaboury, Nikola M. Milentijević and Tommaso Caloiero

Earth 2026, 7(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth7030089 - 30 May 2026

Viewed by 1079

Abstract

Water erosion is the main driver of soil loss in semi-arid mountainous regions, particularly in Algeria. Identifying the spatial distribution of erosion is a crucial first step, providing decision-makers with essential information to develop effective mitigation strategies. The main objective of this study is to apply the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) to estimate soil loss and rank the sub-basins of the Wadi Cheliff Basin (43,750 km²). Different geographical and non-spatial data sets have been employed to develop different thematic layers of the RUSLE factors, such as rainfall erosivity factor (R), soil erodibility factor (K), topographic factor (LS), crop management factor (C), and support practice factor (P). The RUSLE empirical model indicated strong spatial variability of soil loss across the Wadi Cheliff Basin, with estimated values ranging from 0 to 50 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ during October 2017–May 2018. Higher erosion rates (20–50 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) were concentrated in the northern part of the basin near the Mediterranean coast, primarily due to high rainfall erosivity (800–977 MJ mm ha⁻¹ h⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and steep slopes (LS up to 29.48). In contrast, the southern part of the basin exhibited lower soil loss (0–10 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), associated with lower rainfall and gentler slopes. Areas affected by extreme erosion (>50 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) were very limited, representing only 0.02% in October 2017 and 0.40% in May 2018. Maximum soil loss values (224.00 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in October 2017 and 204.10 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in May 2018) indicate that high-intensity erosion is limited to specific localized hotspots, rather than being broadly distributed across the basin. Information on soil erosion patterns at the sub-basin level can guide the planning of effective conservation practices. Such information is helpful for the implementation of erosion control practices and improving overall environmental management in the basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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28 pages, 3066 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MIVES) and Geographic Information Systems for Evaluating the Sustainability of Tourism Activities Around Costa Rica’s Protected Natural Areas

by Juan Diego Araya, Ana Hernando Gallego, Francisco Hernando-Gallego and Javier Velázquez

Earth 2026, 7(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth7010028 - 11 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2626

Abstract

Multi-criteria methods are widely used in sustainability assessments because of their ability to handle large and complex datasets. The MIVES method (Integrated Value Model for Sustainability Assessment) has proven to be a versatile and adaptable tool that can be applied to both products and services across a variety of research fields. However, evidence of its integration with other analytical tools is still limited. This study combines the MIVES method with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to evaluate the sustainability of tourism activities in seven destinations in southern Costa Rica, all located near national parks and nature reserves. First, a MIVES-based model was designed to compute sustainability indices across environmental, economic, and social dimensions, using thirteen normalized and weighted indicators. These calculations produced specific sustainability values for each destination analyzed. The results were then integrated into GIS using ArcGIS Pro 3.6, representing each requirement and indicator as a geographic layer with the corresponding sustainability value. This made it possible to create spatial maps that visually identify the destinations best positioned within the protected natural areas in terms of sustainability, as well as the indicators that most strongly influence each site’s performance—positively or negatively. The destinations that received the highest sustainability scores were Ojochal, La Palma, Puerto Jiménez, and Carate–Matapalo, with averages ranging from 60% to 61%, while Bahía Drake, Bahía Ballena, and Sierpe showed the lowest values, averaging between 58% and 59%. Of the three domains, the social dimension received the highest evaluation, followed by the environmental dimension and, finally, the economic dimension. Overall, all destinations achieved satisfactory sustainability levels, with an overall mean index of 0.60. The visual representation of results simplifies interpretation and serves as a valuable tool to support decision-making for sustainable tourism management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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22 pages, 2247 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Development and Evaluation of Natural Heritage in Protected Areas: The Case of Golija Nature Park, Serbia

by Dragan Petrović, Ljiljana Mihajlović, Danijela Vukoičić, Miroljub Milinčić and Dušan Ristić

Earth 2025, 6(4), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth6040153 - 8 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1466

Abstract

This study applies a quantitative model to assess natural resources and degradation risks in mountain ecosystems, focusing on ecotourism’s role in balancing economic growth and environmental preservation in Golija Nature Park. Results show moderate tourism potential and low degradation risk, affirming ecotourism’s feasibility under sustainable management. The integration of natural assets, cultural heritage, and rural communities highlights ecotourism’s capacity to strengthen local economies, support demographic revitalization, and enhance biodiversity conservation in mountainous regions. The proposed approach offers a practical model for sustainable planning and management of natural areas in a broader international context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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Review

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20 pages, 2393 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Remote Sensing Applications for Land-Use and Land-Cover Change Research in South African Landscapes: A Review

by Nzuzo Nxumalo, Ntombifuthi Precious Nzimande and Sifiso Xulu

Earth 2026, 7(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/earth7020054 - 21 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2609

Abstract

In response to land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes in South Africa, which have varied effects on biodiversity, several studies have characterized LULC changes using remote sensing data due to its cost-effectiveness, repetitiveness, spatial coverage and flexibility. However, the geotemporal and methodological characteristics of these studies remain relatively unknown. In this regard, we review remote sensing-based studies conducted in South Africa using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). From the 343 articles retrieved from Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases, 103 studies were eligible for analysis. The analysis showed that (a) various remote sensing datasets were increasingly and effectively used to characterize LULC in South Africa over the period 2001–2024, primarily Landsat data with integration of various advanced classification algorithms; (b) most studies were conducted in the eastern seaboard, particularly in the Maputaland–Pondoland–Albany hotspot and highveld to the north, and (c) much research dealt with issues pertaining to “pristine class” conversion to urban area and other human-induced activities, mainly in biodiversity-rich landscapes. Overall, LULC studies achieved consistently reliable accuracies, largely using publicly available geospatial datasets, thereby creating an accessible foundation for all researchers. LULC research is expected to increase as conservation efforts strengthen amid ongoing developments in South Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Landscapes: Integrating Physical Geography, Ecotourism, and Nature Conservation)

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