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21 pages, 4840 KB

Open AccessArticle

Threatened Raptor Species Distribution in Nigeria: Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors and Human–Wildlife Conflicts

by Benhildah Antonio, Iniunam A. Iniunam, Talatu Tende and Adams A. Chaskda

Diversity 2025, 17(9), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090602 - 27 Aug 2025

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Understanding the spatial distribution and socio-cultural perceptions of threatened raptors is essential for evidence-based conservation in biodiverse yet understudied regions such as Nigeria. This study combines species distribution modelling with community-based surveys to explore the ecological and human dimensions influencing raptor conservation. To [...] Read more.

Understanding the spatial distribution and socio-cultural perceptions of threatened raptors is essential for evidence-based conservation in biodiverse yet understudied regions such as Nigeria. This study combines species distribution modelling with community-based surveys to explore the ecological and human dimensions influencing raptor conservation. To investigate the influence of anthropogenic pressures on threatened raptors’ reporting rates, we modelled the relationship between the reporting rate (RR) and two key predictors: the Human Footprint Index and population density. Concurrently, 318 questionnaires were administered across multiple sites to assess public perceptions and attitudes toward raptors. Results indicate that there was a notable reduction in the RR of threatened raptor species with an increase in population density (Estimate = −0.085, SE = 0.028, t = −3.056, p = 0.002). In socio-cultural analyses, sentiment analysis revealed that more than 60% of respondents with higher knowledge of raptors often held more negative perceptions, typically associated with poultry predation and cultural beliefs. In contrast, individuals with limited knowledge frequently exhibited more positive (50%) attitudes. Interestingly, areas with high raptor abundance were associated with more negative community perceptions, suggesting that human–wildlife conflict plays a significant role in shaping attitudes. These findings highlight the complexity of human–raptor interactions and the need for conservation strategies that extend beyond formal protected areas. We advocate for an integrated approach that combines ecological modelling with culturally sensitive education and community-based interventions to foster coexistence and support raptor conservation in Nigeria and similar socio-ecological landscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 799 KB

Open AccessArticle

Temporally Determinate, but Spatially Consistent Breeding Performance of Lesser Spotted Eagle (Clanga pomarina) Along the Southern Periphery of Its Distribution

by Dimitar Demerdzhiev, Dobromir Dobrev, Atanas Delchev, Mihail Iliev, Georgi Georgiev, Nikolay Terziev, Ivaylo Angelov and Volen Arkumarev

Diversity 2025, 17(8), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17080566 - 12 Aug 2025

Viewed by 497

Abstract

Breeding performance encompasses offspring production, their survival rate, fertility, overall reproductive outcome, timing of reproduction, and breeding frequency. It varies in raptor species, being affected by different biotic, abiotic, and anthropogenic factors. The Lesser Spotted Eagle is a monogamous, long-lived, slowly reproducing raptor, [...] Read more.

Breeding performance encompasses offspring production, their survival rate, fertility, overall reproductive outcome, timing of reproduction, and breeding frequency. It varies in raptor species, being affected by different biotic, abiotic, and anthropogenic factors. The Lesser Spotted Eagle is a monogamous, long-lived, slowly reproducing raptor, characterized by site-fidelity and strongly territorial behavior. In this study, we examined data collected over a 10-year period, highlighting the eagles’ main breeding parameters, analyzing whether any of them demonstrated significant trends or spatial or temporal differences over the study period. We also searched for a strict correlation between species breeding density and breeding performance. We found out that the mean occupancy rate of the territories marginally decreased β² = −0.64 ± 0.27, p = 0.047, as this process was clearly visible in Sakar Mnt. (β² = −0.66 ± 0.27, p = 0.038), where in 2022, only 67% of the monitored territories were occupied. The overall mean productivity, breeding success, and breeding frequency did not indicate any trend over the years (p > 0.05). Of all tested breeding parameters, occupancy rate (β² = 0.29 ± 0.14, p = 0.04) and breeding success (β² = −0.12 ± 0.06, p = 0.04) varied yearly, while productivity (β² = 0.25 ± 0.12, p = 0.03) and breeding frequency (β² = 0.27 ± 0.12, p = 0.03) were influenced by density. None of the tested indicators demonstrated significant regional differences, which indicated a temporally determinate, but spatially consistent pattern of breeding performance of the species in this part of its distribution. Recently, the landscape pattern in the south-eastern part of the country was marked by spectacular habitat loss, driven by human activities and natural phenomena, with entire biodiversity facing an uncertain future. Prompt action and urgent decisions are needed to prevent the negative consequences of these imminent threats to the species. Conservation efforts should be focused on the restoration of breeding and foraging habitats. Further research on the response of eagles to the effect of natural (fires) and anthropogenic (habitat transformation) factors, as well as the relationship between breeding performance and different drivers of reproduction, such as diet, weather, habitat features, and presence of intra- and interspecific competitors, would be of crucial significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1494 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Infrastructure on the Breeding Distribution of a Threatened Top Predator

by Márton Horváth, Péter Fehérvári, Tamás Szitta and Csaba Moskát

Diversity 2025, 17(7), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070477 - 10 Jul 2025

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Abstract

The eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) has shown a marked population increase in the past decades in Hungary. The breeding range is expanding towards homogeneous agricultural habitats of the Hungarian Plain, where the already existing and recently growing infrastructural network is [...] Read more.

The eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) has shown a marked population increase in the past decades in Hungary. The breeding range is expanding towards homogeneous agricultural habitats of the Hungarian Plain, where the already existing and recently growing infrastructural network is thought to be one of the main factors limiting distribution. We used data from 508 breeding attempts between 1989 and 2008 to assess the effects of infrastructural networks on breeding distribution. We constructed a single cumulative infrastructure effect (CIE) variable based on the avoidance of different infrastructure types by eagles in the past 20 years. Conditional autoregressive models were built in a Bayesian framework to quantify the effects of infrastructures on the spatial breeding pattern in a pre-defined core study area. Both multivariate and CIE models were able to classify the presence of breeding attempts with high accuracy. The CIE variable was used to build a predictive distribution model for the Hungarian Plain. The results suggest that infrastructure has a significant local effect but does not necessarily hinder the future range expansion of imperial eagles, as two-thirds of the prediction area seems to be suitable for the species. The methods and results described enable conservation managers and policy makers to assess the trade-off between infrastructural development and nature conservation priorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 758 KB

Open AccessArticle

Breeding Snowy Owls Are Obligate Lemming Predators in Utqiaġvik, Alaska: Results from 30 Years of Study

by Denver W. Holt, Matthew D. Larson, Mathew T. Seidensticker and Stephen P. Hiro

Diversity 2025, 17(3), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17030209 - 14 Mar 2025

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Abstract

For 30 years (1992–2021), we collected pellets and pellet fragments and recorded prey cached in Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus) nests during the breeding season in Utqiaġvik, Alaska. About 14,000 pellets from an estimated 700 Snowy Owls yielded 43,689 prey items, while [...] Read more.

For 30 years (1992–2021), we collected pellets and pellet fragments and recorded prey cached in Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus) nests during the breeding season in Utqiaġvik, Alaska. About 14,000 pellets from an estimated 700 Snowy Owls yielded 43,689 prey items, while caches in 284 nests yielded 3334 prey items. The owls ate thirty-seven species of vertebrates: one species of fish, five species of mammals, and thirty-one species of birds. Based on the pellet analysis, lemmings represented 99.0% of the total prey, with brown lemmings (Lemmus trimucronatus) representing 94.6%, collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) representing 3.1%, and unidentified lemmings representing 1.3%. All other species were <1%. Based on the prey cached in nests, lemmings represented about 90.0% (89.9%) of the total prey (n = 3334), with brown lemmings representing 88.0% (87.9%), collared lemmings representing 1.9%, and unidentified lemmings representing <1%. Birds represented only 10.0% of the prey cached in nests, although many species were eaten. Food niche breadth (FNB) and dietary evenness (DIEV) scores from pellets were narrow for the prey identified within a group or species. FNB and DIEV scores from the prey cached in nests were also narrow for the prey identified within a group or species. There was almost complete dietary overlap when comparing the prey from pellets with the prey from caches. Biomass estimates from brown lemmings (178 kg) cached in nests were 59 times more than those from collared lemmings (3 kg). Biomass estimates for large birds were misleading, as the owls mainly ate the breast, humerus, and femur muscles. Our study supports a general consensus that Snowy Owls are obligate lemming specialists during the breeding season in Utqiaġvik. In fact, they depend almost entirely on one species of lemming—the brown lemming. Consequently, anthropogenic or natural factors that impact lemming populations and distributions will directly affect Snowy Owl populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4111 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parental Hacking—An Alternative Reintroduction Method for the White-Tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla)

by Eva Meyrier, Jacques-Olivier Travers and Bernd-Ulrich Meyburg

Diversity 2025, 17(2), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020089 - 25 Jan 2025

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Abstract

In an age of rewilding and dramatic declines in biodiversity, we are developing a new way to reintroduce raptors: parental hacking. The principle behind it is similar to traditional hacking, where the birds are released without contact with adult conspecifics. In parental hacking, [...] Read more.

In an age of rewilding and dramatic declines in biodiversity, we are developing a new way to reintroduce raptors: parental hacking. The principle behind it is similar to traditional hacking, where the birds are released without contact with adult conspecifics. In parental hacking, our method, the parents feed their own offspring until the end of the post-fledgling dependency period. Our programme aims to reintroduce the white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) to the Upper Rhône Basin in France. It started in 2022 and will continue until 2030, with the release of 80 young eagles. We describe the method used in 2022, followed by the improvements made in 2023, and finally compare the two years. The young eagles were raised in aviaries at the reintroduction site by their captive-born parents in the Aigles du Léman Park (Haute-Savoie, France). In 2022, two young females and two young males were released as soon as they were able to fly at the age of three months, but they often ended up on the ground due to a lack of flying ability and attacks from wild black kites (Milvus migrans) defending their territory. Therefore, the young eagles were returned to their parents’ aviary before being released a second time at five months in August 2022. One month after release, one male was already 50 km from the reintroduction site, while the other three stayed close to the park. In 2023, five young females and five young males were released at five months. This came after four weeks in a large training aviary to learn how to fly, perch, and fish. The behaviour of the young eagles after release varied greatly between individuals. Overall, 4 out of 10 young eagles travelled long distances and did not return to the reintroduction site to feed within a month, while the other 6 chose to stay close (within 20 km) to the reintroduction site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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7 pages, 4907 KB

Open AccessArticle

Postmortem Examination of a Griffon Vulture Most Likely Killed by Lightning

by Rusko Petrov, Svetoslav Asenov and Ivelin Ivanov

Diversity 2024, 16(12), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16120774 - 19 Dec 2024

Viewed by 990

Abstract

There are numerous reports of animals being struck by lightning, but the number of science-oriented studies in which a necropsy is performed, and the findings are documented, is relatively few and mostly focused on mammals. In contrast, analogous information about birds is scarce. [...] Read more.

There are numerous reports of animals being struck by lightning, but the number of science-oriented studies in which a necropsy is performed, and the findings are documented, is relatively few and mostly focused on mammals. In contrast, analogous information about birds is scarce. The purpose of this article is to present the findings after a postmortem examination of an 85–90-day-old Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) that was most likely killed by lightning while in the nest in Sinite Kamani Nature Park in Bulgaria in 2021. The body was visibly burned, with keraunographic markings, lacked feathers and had fractured bones—typical findings in lightning strike injuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 10142 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Dispersal Ecology of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in Northern Greece: Onset, Ranging, Temporary and Territorial Settlement

by Lavrentis Sidiropoulos, D. Philip Whitfield, Konstantinos Poirazidis, Elisabeth Navarrete, Dimitris P. Vasilakis, Anastasios Bounas, Elzbieta Kret and Vassiliki Kati

Diversity 2024, 16(9), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090580 - 13 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3808

Abstract

Natal dispersal is a crucial period for raptors with serious implications for individuals’ survival and population demography. In this study we analyzed data from 18 GPS-tracked golden eagles in order to describe their dispersal ecology in northern Greece, where the species feeds mostly [...] Read more.

Natal dispersal is a crucial period for raptors with serious implications for individuals’ survival and population demography. In this study we analyzed data from 18 GPS-tracked golden eagles in order to describe their dispersal ecology in northern Greece, where the species feeds mostly on tortoises. Young eagles in our population dispersed at 176 days post fledging, spent their first year of independence relatively close (40–60 kms) to their natal ranges and exhibited a variable temporary settlement behavior. Overall dispersal range sizes did not differ seasonally, but temporary settlement area range sizes were significantly larger in winter. Three eagles survived to territorial settlement and occupied ranges 20–60 kms from their natal areas. The application and refinement of the Scottish GET dispersal ranging model suggested that eagles used areas that had higher topographical relief and lower canopy cover during their natal dispersal. Habitat heterogeneity seems to also be influential during temporary settlement. Our study is the first to provide both such insights for golden eagles in southern eastern Europe and a method for delineating temporary settlement areas for the species. Our findings can be explained in terms of food and habitat availability. We highlight the importance of conserving heterogeneous open areas of complex topography and applying proactive management measures within temporary settlement areas for our population’s conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 883 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wind Farms and Power Lines Reduced the Territory Status and Probability of Fledgling Production in the Eurasian Goshawk Accipiter gentilis

by Magne Husby

Diversity 2024, 16(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16020128 - 18 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2775

Abstract

Wind power is commonly used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but often has negative effects on biodiversity. In this study, I investigated the effects of wind farm and power line construction on the territory status of the Eurasian goshawk Accipiter gentilis, whether [...] Read more.

Wind power is commonly used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but often has negative effects on biodiversity. In this study, I investigated the effects of wind farm and power line construction on the territory status of the Eurasian goshawk Accipiter gentilis, whether fledglings were produced or not, and the number of fledglings. Included were 55 goshawk territories investigated before and after the construction period. I found that the territory status declined significantly in the influence area within 3 km from the disturbance compared to the control area more than 7 km away. Interestingly, the decline in territory status was similar in the distance categories 0–1 km, 1–2 km, and 2–3 km, while there was nearly no change in territory status in the control area, thus indicating that the influence area from this kind of disturbance was minimum 3 km from the nest. The number of breeding pairs declined significantly during the construction period only in the influence area. Possible reasons might be higher mortality caused by collisions with power lines, desertion, avoidance of the areas with noise and disturbance from the constructions, and possible indirect effects caused by reductions in prey species. I found no effects of the construction on the number of fledglings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation and Ecology of Raptors—2nd Edition)

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