Environmentally Friendly Catalysts for Energy and Water Treatment Applications

A special issue of Catalysts (ISSN 2073-4344). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Catalysis".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 April 2025) | Viewed by 8399

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
Interests: water processing; catalytic ozonation; activated carbon adsorption; membrane technologies
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Guest Editor
Institute of Renewable Energies, National Autonomous University of Mexico (IRE-NAUM), Priv. Xochicalco S/n, Col. Centro, Temixco, Morelos, CP 62580, Mexico
Interests: wastewater treatment and valorization; environmental electrochemistry; advanced oxidation processes; emerging pollutants

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Guest Editor Assistant
Departament of Earth Resources, Division of Basic Sciences and Engineering, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-Lerma, Av. de las Garzas 10, Lerma C.P. 52005, State of Mexico, Mexico
Interests: water treatment; advanced oxidation process; photo-Fenton; micropollutants; recalcitrant organic matter

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

After the first successful Special Issue focused on energy and pollution control applications as catalysts, available here, we propose a second edition in the same line, now focused on water with regard to the environment, under the title: “Environmentally Friendly Catalysts for Energy and Water Treatment Applications”.

Catalysts are extensively used in different technologies and play a fundamental role in the efficient generation of energy and industrial emission control. Despite the fact that catalysts have remarkable performance, they pose, in some cases, a negative environmental impact due to their massive use, which is imposed by intensive production strategies. Therefore, a reorientation in the search for new materials such as environmental friendly catalysts (EFCs) is urgently needed. Hence, the development of novel EFCs to face sustainable energy production, climate change problems, water resources conditioning and to abate industrial effluents has become a challenge in the current research fields.

A great variety of catalytic materials, which include single metals as well as mixed metals (and their oxides), are currently being used, either supported over alumina, silica, titania, ceria, zirconia, activated carbons, and zeolites or directly attached to the reactor itself, allowing their continuous use and avoiding waste emissions. Similar cases are found in Fenton catalysis, converted into EFCs through heterogeneous Fenton-like variants. Moreover, the combined use of catalysts with UV/solar irradiation or in combination with O3 and H2O2 will always be preferable to that of other oxidant agents (persulfates). Heterogeneous catalysts are also used as electrodes for energy and environmental applications. Indeed, electrochemical processes are key technologies for sustainable development. This Special Issue addresses the aforementioned topics.

Prof. Dr. José Ignacio Lombraña
Dr. Hugo Olvera Vargas
Guest Editors

Dr. Sandra Yazmin Arzate Salgado
Guest Editor Assistant

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Keywords

  • sustainable advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)
  • green electrocatalytic processes
  • sustainable catalytic processes
  • water resources conditioning
  • wastewater remediation
  • green energy production
  • environmentally friendly catalysts
  • multiple reused catalysts

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2950 KiB  
Article
β-Cyclodextrin Functionalization of Nitrogen-Doped Graphene to Enhance Dispersibility and Activate Persulfate for Trace Antibiotic Degradation in Water
by Min Yao and Nan Wu
Catalysts 2025, 15(6), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15060541 - 29 May 2025
Viewed by 398
Abstract
The functionalization of nitrogen-doped graphene with β-Cyclodextrin (designated β/N-rGO) was employed to enhance the dispersibility of graphene materials and to establish an adsorption-catalytic oxidation system using peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for the removal of trace antibiotics from water. The experimental results indicated that β-Cyclodextrin was [...] Read more.
The functionalization of nitrogen-doped graphene with β-Cyclodextrin (designated β/N-rGO) was employed to enhance the dispersibility of graphene materials and to establish an adsorption-catalytic oxidation system using peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for the removal of trace antibiotics from water. The experimental results indicated that β-Cyclodextrin was effectively dispersed on the support structure of nitrogen-doped graphene, which enhanced the specific surface area and dispersibility of the material. The adsorption-catalytic oxidation system comprising β/N-rGO and PMS degraded 92.35% of sulfamethoxazole within 12 min and exhibited significant removal efficiency for sulfonamides, quinolones, macrolides, tetracyclines, β-lactams, and chloramphenicol antibiotics across a pH range of 3–12. The reaction time was reduced by over 10% compared to the unmodified material, with a more pronounced improvement in treatment efficiency, particularly under low-pH conditions. The activation energy of β/N-rGO was estimated to be approximately 4.5 kJ/mol, and elevated temperatures accelerated the reaction, with the removal rate remaining above 85% after five regeneration cycles. Quenching experiments and EPR spectra confirmed that the primary pathway for PMS activation by β/N-rGO was a non-radical process dominated by singlet oxygen. These findings broaden the research and application scope of cyclodextrin–graphene interactions and provide a feasible approach for the removal of trace antibiotics from water. Full article
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18 pages, 1751 KiB  
Article
Natural Pyrolusite-Catalyzed Ozonation for Nanoplastics Degradation
by Victor Mello, Julia Nieto-Sandoval, Márcia Dezotti and Carmen Sans
Catalysts 2025, 15(5), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15050502 - 21 May 2025
Viewed by 426
Abstract
The increasing prevalence of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) in aquatic environments poses significant risks due to their persistence and potential toxicity. Conventional water treatment methods have proven ineffective in removing these emerging pollutants, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable and efficient treatment. This study [...] Read more.
The increasing prevalence of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) in aquatic environments poses significant risks due to their persistence and potential toxicity. Conventional water treatment methods have proven ineffective in removing these emerging pollutants, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable and efficient treatment. This study investigates the application of catalytic ozonation using natural pyrolusite (n-MnO2) and oxalic acid (OA) as a co-catalyst for the environmentally friendly degradation of PSNPs. Key operational parameters, including pH, applied ozone dose, pyrolusite dosage, and OA concentration, were systematically evaluated. Results demonstrate that the MnO2 + OA + O3 system enhances the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to improved PSNP removal while maintaining the applied ozone dose compared to the single ozonation reaction. The highest TOC removal of 75% was achieved within 30 min of treatment under optimal conditions (pH = 4, [MnO2] = 0.5 g L−1, [OA] = 10 mg L−1, and ozone dose of 37.5 mg min−1), with significant turbidity reduction, indicating both chemical and physical degradation of PSNPs. Catalyst reusability after three consecutive cycles confirmed minimal loss in activity, reinforcing its potential as a sustainable catalytic system. These findings highlight natural MnO2-driven catalytic ozonation as a green and effective strategy for nanoplastic removal in water treatment applications. Full article
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20 pages, 34413 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of a Novel Silica–Alumina-Based Photocatalyst Incorporating Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofiber Nanostructures Using an Unconventional Technique for Light-Driven Water Purification
by Osama Saber, Abdullah Alshehab, Nagih M. Shaalan, Asmaa M. Hegazy, Fatimah K. Aljasem and Aya Osama
Catalysts 2025, 15(5), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15050452 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 425
Abstract
The advancement of optical materials has garnered significant interest from the global scientific community in the pursuit of efficient photocatalysts for the purification of water using light. This challenge, which cannot be addressed using traditional methods, is tackled in the present study utilizing [...] Read more.
The advancement of optical materials has garnered significant interest from the global scientific community in the pursuit of efficient photocatalysts for the purification of water using light. This challenge, which cannot be addressed using traditional methods, is tackled in the present study utilizing unconventional approaches. This study presents the fabrication of an effective photocatalyst using an unconventional approach that employs explosive reactions. This method successfully produces 3D nanostructures composed of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), and silica–alumina nanoparticles at temperatures below 270 °C. Gold-supported silica–alumina–CNT–CNF nanostructures were synthesized and characterized using XRD, TEM, SEM, and EDX, in addition to mapping images. To study and determine the photoactivity of these produced nanostructures, two well-known photocatalysts—titanium dioxide and zinc oxide—were synthesized at the nanoscale for comparison. The results showed that the presence of CNTs and CNFs significantly reduced the band gap energy from 5.5 eV to 1.65 eV and 3.65 eV, respectively, after modifying the silica–alumina structure. In addition, complete degradation of green dye was achieved after 35 min of light exposure using the modified silica–alumina structure. Additionally, the surface properties of the modified silica–alumina had a positive role in accelerating the photocatalytic decomposition of the green dye NGB. A kinetic study confirmed that the modified silica–alumina functions as a promising additive for optical applications, accelerating the photocatalytic degradation of NGB to a rate three times faster than that of the prepared titanium dioxide and six times that of the prepared zinc oxide. Full article
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18 pages, 6704 KiB  
Article
Amorphous MnO2 Supported on CN@SiO2 for Levofloxacin Degradation via a Non-Radical Pathway by PMS Activation
by Longfei Xia, Xilin Wang, Jiahui Li and Dongyan Xu
Catalysts 2025, 15(5), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15050419 - 24 Apr 2025
Viewed by 292
Abstract
Mn-based catalysts have been extensively studied in advanced oxidation processes based on peroxymonosulfate (PMS) oxidants, demonstrating their significant potential for treating antibiotic-contaminated wastewater. In this study, an amorphous MnO2-based composite catalyst (MnO2/CN@SiO2) was prepared and used to [...] Read more.
Mn-based catalysts have been extensively studied in advanced oxidation processes based on peroxymonosulfate (PMS) oxidants, demonstrating their significant potential for treating antibiotic-contaminated wastewater. In this study, an amorphous MnO2-based composite catalyst (MnO2/CN@SiO2) was prepared and used to activate PMS for degrading levofloxacin (LEV). The effects of reaction conditions, such as reaction temperature, catalyst dosage, PMS concentration, and solution pH, on LEV degradation were comprehensively investigated. The interference of water components, e.g., NO3, SO42, Cl, CO32, and humic acid, on the degradation efficiency of LEV was analyzed, and the stability of the catalysts was explored by cycling experiments. Finally, radical quenching experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy were employed to elucidate the contribution of active species to the degradation reaction process. A non-radical-based pathway for LEV degradation was proposed based on these results. Full article
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35 pages, 9518 KiB  
Article
Green Innovation: Multifunctional Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Quercus robur for Photocatalytic Performance, Environmental, and Antimicrobial Applications
by Selma Redjili, Houria Ghodbane, Hichem Tahraoui, Lokmane Abdelouahed, Derradji Chebli, Mohammad Shamsul Ola, Amine Aymen Assadi, Mohammed Kebir, Jie Zhang, Abdeltif Amrane and Sabrina Lekmine
Catalysts 2025, 15(3), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15030256 - 7 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1304
Abstract
This study investigates the green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using leaf extract as a natural reducing agent, evaluating their antimicrobial and photocatalytic properties. The nanoparticles were annealed at 320 °C and 500 °C, and the effects of leaf extract concentration [...] Read more.
This study investigates the green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using leaf extract as a natural reducing agent, evaluating their antimicrobial and photocatalytic properties. The nanoparticles were annealed at 320 °C and 500 °C, and the effects of leaf extract concentration and annealing temperature on their structural, morphological, and electronic properties were systematically explored. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the hexagonal wurtzite structure of ZnO, with crystallite size and defect density being influenced by the concentration of the extract. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the formation of smaller, spherical particles, with increased aggregation observed at higher extract concentrations. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) identified key functional groups, such as hydroxyl groups, C–O bonds, and metal–oxygen vibrations. UV–Vis spectroscopy showed a reduction in band gap energy and an increase in Urbach energy as the extract concentration and annealing temperature were increased. The antimicrobial activity of the ZnO NPs was evaluated against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as Candida albicans, demonstrating significant antibacterial efficacy. Photocatalytic degradation studies of methylene blue dye revealed a superior efficiency of up to 74% for the annealed samples, particularly at 500 °C. This research highlights the potential of green-synthesized ZnO NPs for a wide range of applications, including antimicrobial agents, water purification, and environmental catalysis. It contributes to the advancement of sustainable nanotechnology, offering promising solutions for both technological and ecological challenges. Full article
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21 pages, 6099 KiB  
Article
Peroxymonosulfate Activation by Fe/C Composites for Paracetamol Degradation: Performance Evaluation and Mechanism Insight
by Yujun Zhuo, Hong Meng, Yongqing Zhang, Yu Chen and Jiaqi Cui
Catalysts 2025, 15(3), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15030217 - 26 Feb 2025
Viewed by 684
Abstract
Peroxymonosulfate-based advanced oxidation processes (PMS-AOPs) relying on non-radical pathways offer advantages such as resistance to interference, efficient oxidant utilization, and selective degradation of pollutants. In this study, an Fe, N co-doped activator (Fe-N-C1.5) was synthesized using a simple mixed solvent pyrolysis [...] Read more.
Peroxymonosulfate-based advanced oxidation processes (PMS-AOPs) relying on non-radical pathways offer advantages such as resistance to interference, efficient oxidant utilization, and selective degradation of pollutants. In this study, an Fe, N co-doped activator (Fe-N-C1.5) was synthesized using a simple mixed solvent pyrolysis method. The Fe-N-C1.5 exhibited excellent PMS activation activity. A total of 100% of paracetamol (PCT, 10 ppm) was degraded in the Fe-N-C1.5/PMS system in 7 min. Furthermore, this oxidation system maintained effective PCT removal even in the presence of background ions and in real water matrices. In addition, the leached Fe concentration after 60 min was only 0.084 mg/L, and 94% of PCT could still be removed during the fourth cyclic use of the catalyst. Quenching experiments, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and electrochemical analysis revealed that the Fe-N-C1.5/PMS/PCT system predominantly relies on non-radical pathways, including singlet oxygen (1O2) and catalyst-interface-mediated electron transfer process (ETP). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis and KSCN toxicity experiment confirmed that the graphitic N, carbonyl (C=O), and Fe-Nx were the main PMS activation sites. This study provides an understanding of degradation mechanisms of the Fe-N-C1.5/PMS/PCT system and offers insights into the design of iron–carbon composite catalysts that carry out non-radical PMS activation. Full article
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13 pages, 2416 KiB  
Article
Kinetic Study of the Water Quality Parameters during the Oxidation of Diclofenac by UV Photocatalytic Variants
by Natalia Villota, Begoña Echevarria, Unai Duoandicoechea, Jose Ignacio Lombraña and Ana María De Luis
Catalysts 2024, 14(9), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14090580 - 31 Aug 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1575
Abstract
Diclofenac (DCF, C14H11Cl2NO2) is a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, with a significant occurrence in waste effluents. DCF is especially persistent and difficult to degrade, with numerous toxic effects on aquatic fauna and humans. In [...] Read more.
Diclofenac (DCF, C14H11Cl2NO2) is a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, with a significant occurrence in waste effluents. DCF is especially persistent and difficult to degrade, with numerous toxic effects on aquatic fauna and humans. In 2015, DCF was identified as a priority pollutant (EU Directives on water policy). In this work, UV irradiation and its combination with hydrogen peroxide only or catalyzed by iron salts (photo-Fenton) are analyzed to find the most efficient alternative. DCF aqueous solutions were treated in a stirred 150 W UV photocatalytic reactor. Depending on the case, 1.0 mM H2O2 and 0–5.0 mg/L Fe2+ catalyst, such as FeSO4, was added. During the reaction, DCF, pH, turbidity, UVA at 254 and 455 nm, dissolved oxygen (DO), and TOC were assessed. The degradation of DCF yields a strong increase in aromaticity because of the rise in aromatic intermediates (mono-hydroxylated (4-hydroxy-diclofenac and 5-hydroxy-diclofenac) and di-hydroxylated products (4,5-dihydroxy-diclofenac), which subsequently generate compounds of a quinoid nature), which are very stable and non-degradable by UV light. Thus, only if H2O2 is added can UV completely degrade these aromatic colour intermediates. However, adding ferrous ion (photo-Fenton) the aromaticity remains constant due to iron com-plexes, that generates maximum colour and turbidity at an stoichiometric Fe2+ : DCF ratio of 3. As a result of the study, it is concluded that, with UV light only, a strong yellow colour is generated and maintained along the reaction, but by adding H2O2, a colourless appearance, low turbidity (<1 NTU), and [DO] = 8.1 mg/L are obtained. Surprisingly, photo-Fenton was found to be unsuitable for degrading DCF. Full article
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15 pages, 3488 KiB  
Article
The Direct Formation of an Iron Citrate Complex Using a Metallurgical Slag as an Iron Source for Micropollutant Removal via the Photo-Fenton Process
by Sandra Yazmin Arzate Salgado, Ana Yañez-Aulestia and Rosa-María Ramírez-Zamora
Catalysts 2024, 14(7), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14070426 - 4 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1688
Abstract
Following the goals of the circular economy, this work demonstrates that an industrial by-product can be used in environmental remediation. Metallurgical slag and citric acid were used to form an Fe:Cit complex by simultaneously carrying out the lixiviation of the iron and the [...] Read more.
Following the goals of the circular economy, this work demonstrates that an industrial by-product can be used in environmental remediation. Metallurgical slag and citric acid were used to form an Fe:Cit complex by simultaneously carrying out the lixiviation of the iron and the chelating stages with an 87% iron recovery. This complex was evaluated in the photo-Fenton process to produce HO through salicylic acid dosimetry or salicylic acid hydroxylation, producing 0.13 ± 0.1 mM HO after 30 min of operation; such a value is three orders of magnitude higher than the one reported for the metallurgical slag (as a heterogeneous catalyst, 22 μM) in the photo-Fenton-like process. The system was tested for its ability to degrade a mixture of drugs, including dexamethasone (DEX), naproxen (NAP), and ketorolac (KTR), which are often used to treat the symptoms of COVID-19. The drug degradation tests were performed in two stages. In the first stage, the Fe:Cit complex from the metallurgical slag was compared to the one formed by analytical-grade reactants; the drug degradation was faster for the former, with the major difference being observed at 5 cm and 500 W/m2. Here, 85–90% of the drugs was degraded in 5 min using Fe:Cit from slag, while at least 20 min was necessary to achieve such degradation with the analytical reagent, conceivably because of the trace compounds being lixiviated from the slag. Then, the effects of the liquid depth (5, 10, and 15 cm) and irradiance (250, 500, and 750 W/m2) were tested; the pseudo-first-order kinetic degradation constants for the three model pollutants were in the range of 0.009 > kD > 0.09 min−1, showing that degradation is more feasible for DEX than for NAP and KRT because the radical attack feasibility is related to the molecular structures. Full article
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Review

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52 pages, 15996 KiB  
Review
Current Strategies to Improve the Properties of Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Effective and Scalable Wastewater Pollutant Removal: A Critical Review
by Xan Barreiro-Xardon, Emilio Rosales and María Ángeles Sanromán
Catalysts 2025, 15(6), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15060523 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 383
Abstract
Heterogeneous photocatalysis has emerged in recent years as a promising and sustainable decontamination method. However, several drawbacks limit the effective usage of this process up to date, such as photocatalysts’ limited properties, difficulty in modifying and improving their properties, as well as the [...] Read more.
Heterogeneous photocatalysis has emerged in recent years as a promising and sustainable decontamination method. However, several drawbacks limit the effective usage of this process up to date, such as photocatalysts’ limited properties, difficulty in modifying and improving their properties, as well as the environmental impact and cost associated with the use of the metals on which conventional photocatalysts are based. Graphitic carbon nitride (gCN), a new carbon-based photocatalyst, offers the possibility of easy modification and improvement of their properties. There are several strategies to improve the properties of these derivatives, such as increasing the surface area (modifying morphology into 0D, 1D, 2D, or porous structures), increasing the absorption in the visible (doping), and improving the separation and mobility of photogenerated charges (introducing defects, vacancies, functional groups, and doping). In this review, a compilation of these modifications, the associated improvements in its properties, and its derivatives was carried out with focus on the degradation of emerging pollutants (EPs). The property modifications enhance their behavior and efficiency of degradation, all in a cheaper and more sustainable way. Thus, improved gCN derivatives offer real possibilities for the upscaling of heterogeneous photocatalytic processes as an effective alternative for decontaminating water bodies. Full article
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