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Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete
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Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete

A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2026) | Viewed by 34721

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Jolien Van Der Putten

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: 3D printing of concrete; material development; material optimization; circularity in the construction industry

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The extrusion-based 3D printing (3DCP) of concrete is rapidly gaining popularity in the construction industry. Large-scale projects investigating this method are taking place at an increasing rate across the globe, with the aim of improving upon traditional construction methods while meeting the same structural standards. Despite its many advantages, establishing 3DCP as an equivalent construction process comes with multiple challenges. These challenges range from matching the design with the method’s manufacturing capabilities, maintaining consistent quality on a large scale, and ensuring structural reliability and compatibility with other materials. Furthermore, the sustainability/durability of the material and the (possible) integration of circularity in the design process are becoming increasingly important.

The main aim of this Special Issue is to explore recent challenges and developments in 3D printing. Topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Material development;
  • Material characterization in fresh and hardened states;
  • Mechanical properties;
  • Durability/sustainability;
  • Quality control;
  • 3D modelling;
  • Parametric design (tools and development);
  • Structural applications.

Dr. Jolien Van Der Putten
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • 3D Printing
  • material development
  • material characterization
  • durability/sustainability
  • parametric design
  • structural applications

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

17 pages, 5909 KB  
Article
Optimization and Performance Study of 3D Printed Concrete Mixture for Underground Utility Tunnels
by Peixi Guo, Hanwen Zhang, Enmu Ge, Ming Lin, Hang Jia, Yao Zhang and Xinyu Fan
Buildings 2026, 16(4), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040859 - 20 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 513
Abstract
The construction of traditional underground utility tunnels faces prominent challenges, including high costs, long construction cycles, and limited workspace. Although 3D printing technology offers an effective solution to these issues, its practical application is largely constrained by key performance factors such as the [...] Read more.
The construction of traditional underground utility tunnels faces prominent challenges, including high costs, long construction cycles, and limited workspace. Although 3D printing technology offers an effective solution to these issues, its practical application is largely constrained by key performance factors such as the printability, early strength, and interlayer bonding of concrete materials. This study aims to develop a 3D-printable concrete material specifically suited for the construction of underground utility tunnels. Through collaborative optimization of parameters such as the water–binder ratio, additives, and fiber content using single-factor and orthogonal tests, the optimal mix proportion was determined: a water–binder ratio of 0.30, a 10% dosage of rapid-hardening sulphoaluminate cement (R·SAC), a sand-to-binder ratio of 1.0, 20% mineral admixtures (15% fly ash + 5% silica fume), and a 1.0% volume fraction of polypropylene fibers. The results indicate that the fresh paste achieved a flowability of 192 mm, demonstrating excellent printability. Specimens printed using a sawtooth toolpath reached a 3-day compressive strength of 37.8 MPa, with 28-day compressive and flexural strengths increasing to 56.3 MPa and 7.8 MPa, respectively, and an interlayer bond strength of 3.5 MPa. Crucially, the compressive and flexural anisotropy coefficients were as low as 0.023 and 0.066, respectively, showing a preliminary exploratory trend superior to levels reported in some literature and suggesting the potential of printed components to improve structural performance consistency. This material system not only meets the requirements of 3D printing for early strength and workability but also, by introducing R·SAC to form a low-alkalinity binder system, provides a potential pathway for enhancing long-term durability in corrosive environments. This study offers a reliable theoretical and experimental basis for the application of 3D printing technology in underground engineering. Long-term durability will remain a primary focus of subsequent research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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23 pages, 8317 KB  
Article
Investigation of the Impact of Material Rheology on the Interlayer Bonding Performance of Solid Waste 3D-Printed Components
by Yifan Li, Shuisheng Chen, Liuhua Yang, Chuan Guo, Zhentao Li and Youliang Chen
Buildings 2025, 15(5), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15050780 - 27 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1547
Abstract
With the rapid advancement of 3D printing technology in low-carbon construction, the constructability of 3D printing materials has increasingly garnered attention. The constructability of these materials is intrinsically linked to their rheological properties. Therefore, this paper investigates the impact of additives, specifically hydroxypropyl [...] Read more.
With the rapid advancement of 3D printing technology in low-carbon construction, the constructability of 3D printing materials has increasingly garnered attention. The constructability of these materials is intrinsically linked to their rheological properties. Therefore, this paper investigates the impact of additives, specifically hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE), on the rheological properties of materials. The findings indicated that HPMC significantly increased both shear stress and apparent viscosity while also enhancing the thixotropic loop area. In contrast, PCE was found to reduce viscosity and yield stress, thereby improving fluidity and plasticity. The judicious incorporation of PCE (less than 0.003) and HPMC (less than 0.002) can enhance the rheological properties of the printing material, thereby improving the stability and interlayer bonding characteristics of the 3D printing structure. However, an excessive amount will result in a reduction in fluidity and cohesion, adversely impacting the printing quality. At this stage, the occurrence of cracks increases, which is detrimental to interlayer adhesion. Therefore, the judicious control of the proportions of PCE and HPMC can enhance the fluidity and viscosity of the material, thereby improving interlayer bonding strength and print quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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19 pages, 6804 KB  
Article
Interlayer Bond Strength of 3D Printed Concrete Members with Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) Mix
by Yoon Jung Lee, Sang-Hoon Lee, Jae Hyun Kim, Hoseong Jeong, Sun-Jin Han and Kang Su Kim
Buildings 2024, 14(7), 2060; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14072060 - 5 Jul 2024
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7147
Abstract
In structures manufactured using 3D concrete printing, cracks can easily propagate along the interface between printed layers. Therefore, it was necessary to determine the interlayer bond strength. In this study, direct shear and tensile tests were performed to determine the interlayer bond stability [...] Read more.
In structures manufactured using 3D concrete printing, cracks can easily propagate along the interface between printed layers. Therefore, it was necessary to determine the interlayer bond strength. In this study, direct shear and tensile tests were performed to determine the interlayer bond stability of the 3DCP members. To confirm the appropriateness of the mix proportion used to fabricate the specimens, the open time available for printing was identified via a mixing test, and the extrudability and buildability were verified via a printing test. In addition, direct shear and tensile tests were performed using the specimen manufacturing method (i.e., mold casting and 3D printing) and printing time gap (PTG) between the laminated layers as key test variables. The interlayer bond strengths of the specimens, according to the variables obtained from the test results, were compared and analyzed based on the interfacial shear strength standards presented in the current structural codes. In the direct shear test, failure occurred at the interlayers of all the specimens, and the interlayer bond strength tended to decrease with increasing PTG. In addition, the interlayer bond strength of the direct shear specimens exceeded the interfacial shear strength suggested by current structural codes. In contrast, in the direct tensile test, interlayer surface failure occurred only in some specimens, and there was no distinct change in the interlayer bond strength owing to PTG. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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23 pages, 12699 KB  
Article
Automated Reinforcement during Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing: Structural Assessment of a Dual Approach
by Hassan Ahmed, Ilerioluwa Giwa, Daniel Game, Gabriel Arce, Hassan Noorvand, Marwa Hassan and Ali Kazemian
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041167 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2957
Abstract
Automated and seamless integration of reinforcement is one of the main unresolved challenges in large-scale additive construction. This study leverages a dual-reinforcement solution consisting of high-dosage steel fiber (up to 2.5% by volume) and short vertical reinforcements as a complementary reinforcement technique for [...] Read more.
Automated and seamless integration of reinforcement is one of the main unresolved challenges in large-scale additive construction. This study leverages a dual-reinforcement solution consisting of high-dosage steel fiber (up to 2.5% by volume) and short vertical reinforcements as a complementary reinforcement technique for 3D-printed elements. The mechanical performance of the printing material was characterized by measuring the compressive, flexural, and uniaxial tensile strengths of mold-cast specimens. Furthermore, the flexural performance of the plain and fiber-reinforced 3D-printed beams was evaluated in the three main loading directions (X, Y, and Z-directions in-plane). In addition, short vertical threaded reinforcements were inserted into the fiber-reinforced 3D-printed beams tested in the Z-direction. The experimental results revealed the superior flexural performance of the fiber-reinforced beams loaded in the longitudinal directions (X and Y). Moreover, the threaded reinforcement significantly increases the flexural strength and ductility of beams loaded along the interface, compared to the control. Overall, the proposed dual-reinforcement approach, which exhibited notably less porosity compared to the mold-cast counterpart, holds great potential as a reinforcement solution for 3D-printed structures without the need for manual operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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Review

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32 pages, 9197 KB  
Review
Test Procedures and Mechanical Properties of Three-Dimensional Printable Concrete Enclosing Different Mix Proportions: A Review and Bibliometric Analysis
by Ghasan Fahim Huseien, Shea Qin Tan, Ali Taha Saleh, Nor Hasanah Abdul Shukor Lim and Sib K. Ghoshal
Buildings 2024, 14(9), 2667; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092667 - 27 Aug 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4690
Abstract
Three-dimensional printable concrete (3DPC) has become increasingly popular in the building and architecture industries due to its low cost and fast design. Currently, there is great interest in the mix design methods and mechanical properties of 3DPC, particularly in relation to yield stress [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional printable concrete (3DPC) has become increasingly popular in the building and architecture industries due to its low cost and fast design. Currently, there is great interest in the mix design methods and mechanical properties of 3DPC, particularly in relation to yield stress analysis. The ability to extrude and build 3D-printed objects can be significantly affected by factors such as the rate of extrusion, nozzle size, and type of pumps used. It has been observed that a yield stress lower than 1.5 to 2.5 kPa is not sufficient to maintain the shape stability of concrete, while a yield stress above this range can limit the material’s extrudability. Furthermore, the strength properties of 3DPC are influenced by factors such as changes in yield stress and superplasticiser dosages. To meet the high mechanical strength and durability requirements of 3DPC in the construction industry, it is essential to analyse the material’s early-age mechanical properties. However, the development of standardised test methods for 3DPC is still deficient. To address this issue, a bibliometric analysis was conducted to comprehensively review the diverse test methods and mechanical characteristics of 3DPC with different mix proportions. To produce high-performance concrete from various additives and waste materials, it is critical to have a basic understanding of the hydration processes of 3DPC. Moreover, a detailed analysis of the environmental impact and energy efficiency of 3DPC is necessary for its widespread implementation. This review article will highlight the recent trends, upcoming challenges, and benefits of using 3DPC. It serves as a taxonomy to navigate the field of 3DPC towards sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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28 pages, 9094 KB  
Review
Advancement in Sustainable 3D Concrete Printing: A Review on Materials, Challenges, and Current Progress in Australia
by Kumari Gamage, Sabrina Fawzia, Tatheer Zahra, Muge Belek Fialho Teixeira and Nor Hafizah Ramli Sulong
Buildings 2024, 14(2), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020494 - 10 Feb 2024
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 15086
Abstract
Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is a sustainable and green approach for rapid construction with the ability to create complex shapes to preserve the intended aesthetic appearance for an affordable cost. Even after a decade of attempts, there are many limitations and challenges to [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is a sustainable and green approach for rapid construction with the ability to create complex shapes to preserve the intended aesthetic appearance for an affordable cost. Even after a decade of attempts, there are many limitations and challenges to applying this technology for constructions without borders. The lack of guidelines for mix designs, quality control procedures during extrusion, printing and building phases, compatibility of material with extruder, standard testing, and guidelines to verify suitability of mixture with respect to the application and exposure conditions and limited machine capacity are several areas to be addressed for applications without borders. The development of 3DCP applications as a sustainable and green technology is another challenging task due to high Portland cement consumption in 3DCP. However, reducing the high usage of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with pozzolanic waste materials replacement and environmentally friendly cement indicates the direction of moving 3DCP into a sustainable pathway. The authors reviewed more than 200 refereed articles published on materials and techniques in 3DCP. Inconsistency in disseminating knowledge in research articles has hindered the creation of a monolithically connected chain of research efforts and findings in accelerating the development and adoption of this technology. This paper summarizes the common approach to developing 3DCP mix designs and identifies the key areas for the future development of materials and techniques and challenges to be addressed for the global adoption of 3DCP. The current progress and challenges in the context of Australia’s construction industry and future trends for the acceptance of 3DCP are also reviewed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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Other

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25 pages, 2024 KB  
Systematic Review
Challenges and Solutions for Scalability of Affordable Housing: A Literature Review on 3D Printed Construction in Kuwait
by Fatemah Abdullateef Alawadi, Martina Murphy and Robert Eadie
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020343 - 14 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 859
Abstract
This study presents a systematic literature review exploring the challenges and solutions for scaling 3D printing in affordable residential construction in Kuwait. This review explores the urgent need to alleviate housing shortages through faster, cost-effective, and sustainable building approaches, highlighting the potential of [...] Read more.
This study presents a systematic literature review exploring the challenges and solutions for scaling 3D printing in affordable residential construction in Kuwait. This review explores the urgent need to alleviate housing shortages through faster, cost-effective, and sustainable building approaches, highlighting the potential of additive manufacturing. Guided by the PRISMA framework, this review synthesizes findings from 20 key sources selected from an initial pool of 141 studies. The analysis identifies major scalability challenges—high material costs, limited supply chain readiness, complex regulatory frameworks, environmental constraints, and technical limitations—and evaluates proposed solutions such as geopolymer concrete, advanced printing technologies, and policy reforms. While this study does not include empirical data, it offers a comprehensive synthesis of the existing literature to inform policymakers and industry leaders about the potential of 3D printing to address Kuwait’s housing crisis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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