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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 13955

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Editors

Dr. Michal Gath-Morad

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Guest Editor

Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PX, UK
Interests: BioCognitive architectural design; spatial cognition; wayfinding; neuroarchitecture; evidence-based design; human–building interaction; agent-based modeling; psychophysics; virtual reality; and responsive environments
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Koen Steemers

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Guest Editor

Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PX, UK
Interests: sustainable buildings; sustainable and circular cities; architecture and wellbeing; behavior and building performance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Cleo Valentine

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor Assistant

Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PX, UK
Interests: architectural health; architecture; built environment; urban planning; theory of architecture; architectural history; urban development; neuroaesthetics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce the Special Issue “BioCognitive Architectural Design” in the journal Buildings. This issue introduces BioCognitive Architectural Design (BCAD) as a new interdisciplinary framework that integrates biological and cognitive insights with architectural practice. BCAD emphasizes how environments shape cognitive and behavioral outcomes, focusing on wayfinding, decision making, social interaction, and adaptation to human needs.

As architecture faces challenges like urbanization, resource scarcity, and the demand for sustainability, BCAD bridges science and design to create environments that enhance human performance and interaction. This Special Issue invites empirical studies, theoretical contributions, and practical innovations that explore BCAD in diverse settings such as healthcare, workplaces, public spaces, and extreme environments like space stations and polar research stations.

Submissions may include the following:

Research examining spatial cognition and behavior in architectural contexts.
Design tools and methodologies translating scientific insights into practice.
Critical reflections on the application of BCAD to improve health, productivity, or organizational outcomes.
Case studies demonstrating BCAD principles in real-world settings.

We encourage interdisciplinary collaborations and contributions that advance the scientific and practical understanding of BioCognitive Architectural Design.

Dr. Michal Gath-Morad
Prof. Dr. Koen Steemers
Guest Editors

Cleo Valentine
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

BioCognitive Architectural Design
spatial cognition
wayfinding
human–building interaction
adaptive architecture
neuroscience in design
NeuroArchitecture
evidence-based architectural design
responsive environments
cognitive behaviors in architecture
generative design

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 6108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Age-Specific Design Needs for Corridor Informal Learning Spaces in Primary Schools: A Low-Cost Mixed-Methods Study

by Rong Wang, Tao Liu, Danylo Kosenko, Yifan Yan and Shanshan Huang

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2171; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112171 - 28 May 2026

Viewed by 241

Abstract

To address the limited evidence base and lack of replicable methods for age-specific design in corridor-based informal learning spaces (ILSs) in resource-constrained primary schools, this study examines age-related spatial needs through a low-cost mixed-methods approach grounded in environment–behavior research and developmental psychology. Drawing on data from three primary schools in Lüliang, Shanxi, it constructs a three-stage evidence chain integrating preference data, behavioral mapping, and context validation. The findings show that lower-grade children (6–9 years) responded more strongly to salient cues and immediate feedback, with dynamic play and environmental interaction as prominent behavioral patterns. Upper-grade children (10–12 years), by contrast, were more often observed in low-interference settings with organizational support and more often engaged in group collaboration. Of the 113 recorded conflict events, 74.3% clustered in behavioral hotspots, indicating a strong spatial correspondence between conflict events and high-density activity areas, and pointing to structural mismatches among spatial attraction, capacity, and circulation. This study develops a low-cost spatial diagnosis and optimization framework for resource-constrained school environments. Within this framework, Minimum Viable Conditions (MVCs) define baseline usable conditions, the Bottleneck-Prone Node (BPN) identifies risk-prone corridor nodes, and the Cross-School Stability Index (CSI) supports cross-school stability assessment and intervention prioritization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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24 pages, 3282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multisensory Architecture and Cognitive Development in Students with ASD: Correlational Analysis and Empirical Hierarchization of Spatial Criteria in Metropolitan Lima

by Nathaly K. Saavedra-Torres, Fabricio M. Salazar-Escriba and Emilio J. Medrano-Sanchez

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 2032; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16102032 - 21 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 440

Abstract

International evidence has been positioning the built environment as an active component of the development of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD); nevertheless, a gap persists in the empirical quantification of that relationship and, above all, in its dimensional hierarchization, a gap that becomes more pronounced in urban educational contexts with limited infrastructure such as those in Latin America. Within this framework, and with the aim of contributing empirical evidence to guide design decisions in comparable contexts, the present study analyzed the association between multisensory architecture and the cognitive development of students with ASD at a Special Basic Education Center (CEBE) in San Miguel, Metropolitan Lima, organizing the findings into a dimensional hierarchy that makes it possible to compare the relative strength of each spatial criterion. To address this objective, a non-experimental, cross-sectional, and correlational design was adopted, in which cognitive development was assessed through proxy informants (specifically, immediate family members with daily and sustained contact with the students), given that students with ASD present limitations for standardized verbal self-reporting. On this basis, a sample of 101 proxy informants completed, through the QuestionPro platform, a structured questionnaire of 24 Likert-scale items previously validated by expert judgment, exploratory factor analysis, and internal consistency analysis; inferential analysis was then conducted using Spearman’s rho, in keeping with the non-normal nature of the data. The results revealed a positive and statistically significant association between multisensory architecture and cognitive development, and they further allowed that relationship to be dimensionally ordered: on the built-environment side, physical-spatial conditions reached the greatest magnitude of association, followed by environmental conditions and, lastly, functional conditions; on the cognitive side, concentration emerged as the dimension most sensitive to the environment, followed by self-regulation and accessibility. Taken together, this empirical hierarchization offers architects, educational administrators, and therapeutic teams a practical reference for prioritizing design decisions in contexts with limited infrastructure and, to that extent, contributes to the fulfillment of Sustainable Development Goals 3 and 11, which connect health with inclusive urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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21 pages, 2636 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Inverted-U Relationship Between Spatial Openness and Cognitive Engagement: 3D Isovist and EEG

by Se Ho Park and Han Jong Jun

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1938; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101938 - 13 May 2026

Viewed by 351

Abstract

This paper investigates the relationship between spatial openness and cognitive engagement, integrating geometric and neurophysiological indicators to address the lack of frameworks directly coupling spatial structure with neural responses. Spatial openness is quantified using three-dimensional isovist volume. Engagement is measured via an EEG-based index (β/(θ + α)). Twenty-six participants completed an experiment in a virtual reality environment in which 16 spatial conditions of varying openness were presented. A node-based framework couples spatial metrics with EEG responses at the level of individual observation points and temporal segments. Linear and quadratic mixed-effects models reveal a small but statistically detectable inverted-U relationship between openness and engagement (marginal R² = 0.020) that persists after correction for spatial–temporal autocorrelation, with the pattern replicated in 18 of 26 participants. We interpret these findings as preliminary neurophysiological evidence that spatial openness modulates engagement through an optimal range of stimulation, supporting designs that balance visual exposure against spatial boundaries. Generalisation is constrained by the VR-based setting, the limited sample size, and the small absolute effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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24 pages, 3540 KB

Open AccessArticle

Boundary Strategies Enhance Spatial Cognitive Efficiency in Indoor Navigation: A VR-Based Investigation

by Jian Xu, Shuo Wang and Fei Fang

Buildings 2026, 16(5), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16051001 - 4 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 662

Abstract

Effective indoor navigation remains a challenge in complex built environments such as hospitals and airports, where disorientation can lead to anxiety, inefficiency, and safety risks. While prior research has focused on outdoor wayfinding or single-metric performance assessments, few studies have examined spatial cognitive efficiency—a multidimensional metric defined as the standardized difference between spatial knowledge acquisition (P) and cognitive resource expenditure (R). In this study, P was derived from expert-rated sketch maps that captured participants’ environmental understanding, while R was indexed by navigation path length, which reflected their exploration effort. This study employed virtual reality to investigate how individual differences and environmental cues shape cognitive efficiency during indoor navigation. Thirty participants explored a high-fidelity virtual environment while behavioral, sketch-based, and questionnaire data were collected. Results revealed a non-significant linear correlation between P and R, consistent with cognitive efficiency as a distinct construct. High-efficiency participants relied more on boundary cues and exhibited “low-speed, short-distance” exploration patterns, whereas landmark-dependent strategies showed lower stability. These findings underscore the theoretical and practical value of cognitive efficiency as a multidimensional metric, offering evidence-based guidance for designing cognitively supportive indoor navigation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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33 pages, 5966 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation Between Visible Landscape Elements and Locals’ Spatial Preference in Historical District Public Open Spaces via VR-Based EEG Measurement: A Case Study of Quanzhou

by Zihuan Zhang, Zhe Guo and Xinyi Chen

Buildings 2026, 16(4), 764; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16040764 - 12 Feb 2026

Viewed by 871

Abstract

Public open spaces (POSs) are key assets in renovating traditional residential areas, and many studies examine how their commercial attributes shape spatial cognition and consumer behavior to encourage activity and boost local consumption. However, there is a lack of response to the emotional feedback needs of locals in the renovation of public open spaces in historic communities. To fill this gap, this study proposes a VR-based multimodal perception assessment framework integrating immersive virtual reality (VR) experiments, electroencephalography (EEG) measurements, and AI-based landscape image segmentation to investigate how built environmental elements in public open spaces influence the spatial preferences and psychological responses of local residents within Quanzhou historic communities. By integrating EEG data with Likert-scale preference evaluations, it investigates how varying characteristics of visible landscape elements within POSs influence residents’ psychological responses. The results reveal that locally distinctive vegetation and heritage architectural remains in historical district public open spaces (HDPOSs) are positively correlated with relaxation and negatively correlated with attention levels. It is worth noting that recently designed or renovated spaces with preserved old vegetation are more popular and cause higher levels of relaxation among locals compared to more contemporary built-up areas, highlighting their cultural and ecological importance in urban settings. This study advances the fields of urban planning and historical preservation by advocating for the integration of local preferences and historical elements into POS design to foster community well-being and ensure cultural continuity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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17 pages, 2172 KB

Open AccessArticle

Brain Booster Buildings: Modelling Stair Use as a Daily Booster of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor

by Mohamed Hesham Khalil and Koen Steemers

Buildings 2025, 15(20), 3730; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15203730 - 16 Oct 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2023

Abstract

This paper establishes the Brain Booster Buildings framework, the first model to demonstrate how daily stair use can elevate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a vital molecule for lifelong neurogenesis and brain health in humans. Through a novel framework of the associations between metabolic equivalents (METs) data and BDNF response studies, we establish that stairs are generally higher in METs than any indoor activity. We further explain how architectural parameters (riser height, floor number, pace) predictably modulate exercise intensity during stair use. We identify two implementable patterns: moderate-intensity continuous use (≥20 min, 1–3 floors) and high-intensity interval training (6 min, carrying loads while using stairs in a building with three floors or less, or using stairs in a building with ≥3 floors, load-free). Based on BDNF responses to comparable exercise intensities, 6 min of high-intensity stair climbing is predicted to increase serum BDNF by up to 40%. Since people spend ~90% of their time indoors while neurogenesis declines fourfold throughout the adult lifespan, affecting mood, stress resilience, and memory, vertical architecture emerges as a vital, accessible, and cost-effective infrastructure that boosts BDNF for neurogenesis, plasticity, and brain health. We conducted scenario-based modelling using the Brain Booster Buildings framework to estimate how the use of stairs in residential, office, educational, hospital, and commercial buildings may boost BDNF levels based on established intensity–BDNF relationships. The framework provides architects, policymakers, and clinicians with evidence-based estimated specifications to use buildings as daily brain boosters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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21 pages, 28668 KB

Open AccessArticle

Generative AI for Architectural Façade Design: Measuring Perceptual Alignment Across Geographical, Objective, and Affective Descriptors

by Stephen Law, Cleo Valentine, Yuval Kahlon, Chanuki Illushka Seresinhe, Jason Tang, Michal Gath Morad and Haruyuki Fujii

Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3212; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173212 - 5 Sep 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5145

Abstract

Generative AI is increasingly applied in architectural research, from automated ideation and reshaping design workflows to design education. Despite the increasing realism of synthetic imagery, several research gaps remain including alignment, plausibility, explainability, and control. This study focuses on alignment with human perceptions, specifically examining how synthetic architectural façade imagery aligns with geographical, objective, and affective text descriptors. We propose a pipeline that applies a Latent Diffusion Model to generate façade images and then evaluate this alignment through both AI-based and human-based evaluations. The results reveal that while images generated with geographical prompts are notably aligned, they also show clear biases. The results also reveal that images synthesised from objective descriptors (e.g., angular/curvy) are more aligned with human perceptions than affective descriptors (e.g., utopian/dystopian). These initial results highlight the opportunities and limits of current generative AI models, hinting at data biases and the potential lack of embodied understanding to grasp the complexity in experiencing architecture. Limitations of the study remain. Future work can expand on exploring cultural biases and semantic overlaps, and in testing more advanced embodied AI models and methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

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34 pages, 436 KB

Open AccessReview

Can Dominant Architectural Culture Influence Cognitive Processes? Architectural Intelligence and AI-Assisted Evaluation

by Stephen M. Peña and Nikos A. Salingaros

Buildings 2026, 16(12), 2404; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16122404 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 476

Abstract

The concept of technological singularity is discussed here in the context of architecture (of buildings, not software). This is the point at which non-human intelligence is conjectured to surpass ordinary human cognitive limits. Empirically constrained AI may already offer a useful corrective to mainstream architectural culture in one crucial aspect—its capacity to evaluate design that adapts to human emotional health. Postwar building architecture as an institutional power system rewards abstraction and stylistic conformity through media prestige while not always accounting for embodied human experience. By narrowing judgment criteria, architectural studio pedagogy trains tacitly for imitation, not seeking evidence that conflicts with dominant formal ideologies. Yet findings from environmental psychology, health-related design research, neuroscience, and recent AI-based studies show that built form measurably affects empathic response and user well-being. This paper examines what effects dominant architectural culture could impose on the public by producing informationally impoverished, stressful environments. We argue that built environment design may suffer from an epistemic closure because (i) architectural education does not foster curiosity in how design affects users—the core mechanism for intelligence development—and (ii) architectural media may legitimate non-adaptive form languages by habituating populations to ignore distress signals from geometries associated with elevated stress markers. However, empirically constrained AI can now be directed to apply that relevant knowledge base to improve the built environment. The most suggestive evidence in the paper is that LLM emotional scores, LLM geometric scores, human eye-tracking, and large public surveys converge on the same designs. In this sense, the AI singularity can be framed as a domain-specific, testable hypothesis in architecture. This paper does not report new generated results derived from Empirically Constrained Scaffolding (ECS), which appear in prior applications, but reproduces the original prompts as an illustration of the method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue BioCognitive Architectural Design)

13 pages, 228 KB

Open AccessReview

From Computational Cognition to Neuroarchitecture: Tracing the Past and Future Potential of Brain-Informed Design

by Michael O’Neill

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030478 - 23 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1423

Abstract

This paper traces the intellectual foundations of neuroarchitecture, the design of environments informed by how the brain processes spatial information, from its origins in 1970s environmental psychology and later connectionist philosophy to its contemporary state. While early computational approaches prioritized speed and efficiency for engineering tasks like pattern recognition, a prescient group of pioneers pursued a different path. They developed biologically plausible neural network models that prioritized neural realism over computational performance. These networks embraced the complex realities of biological brains, incorporating excitatory and inhibitory dynamics, local learning rules, and hierarchical knowledge representation. We examine how the philosophical frameworks developed during this formative period established the theoretical foundation for meaningful interdisciplinary collaboration between neuroscience and design. The field has since expanded significantly through our contemporary understanding of neurodiversity. This broader perspective has the potential to transform neuroarchitecture from a niche research area into a comprehensive approach for creating environments that support cognitive performance and brain health for everyone. Full article

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