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Volume 16
Issue 8
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Buildings, Volume 16, Issue 8 (April-2 2026) – 176 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This study proposes a data-processing framework for integrating human motion data into architectural design. Three computational strategies (Extension, Division, and Clumping) are applied to 3D motion data extracted via the vision-based machine learning model VideoPose3D. The effects of each strategy on form and spatial properties are systematically compared using quantitative metrics such as volumetric efficiency. Rather than producing a finalized architectural form, the framework focuses on refining raw motion data and translating it into controllable architectural parameters. This approach establishes a structured basis for future integration with design automation and performance-based simulation. View this paper
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26 pages, 4793 KB  
Article
Analysis of Dewatering Characteristics of Deep Foundation Pit in Anisotropic Permeability Coefficient Stratum
by Wentao Shang, Xinru Wang, Yu Tian, Xiao Zheng and Jianzhe Shi
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081639 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 319
Abstract
Permeability anisotropy, which is widely present in natural soil deposits, plays an important role in controlling groundwater flow patterns and ground deformation during deep excavation dewatering. However, isotropic assumptions are still commonly adopted in engineering practice, making it difficult to accurately capture realistic [...] Read more.
Permeability anisotropy, which is widely present in natural soil deposits, plays an important role in controlling groundwater flow patterns and ground deformation during deep excavation dewatering. However, isotropic assumptions are still commonly adopted in engineering practice, making it difficult to accurately capture realistic subsurface hydraulic conditions. In this study, a deep foundation pit of a metro station in Jinan, China, is taken as a case study. A three-dimensional excavation–dewatering model incorporating permeability anisotropy is established using PLAXIS 3D to systematically investigate the influence of the permeability ratio (Kx/Kz) ranging from 0.1 to 10 on the seepage field evolution, dewatering influence radius, ground surface settlement, and consolidation time history. The results indicate that increasing permeability anisotropy promotes a fundamental transition of the seepage regime from vertically concentrated recharge to laterally dominated radial flow. Correspondingly, the dewatering influence radius exhibits a pronounced non-monotonic response to Kx/Kz, decreasing significantly with increasing permeability ratio and reaching a minimum at approximately Kx/Kz ≈ 5, followed by a slight rebound. Meanwhile, surface settlement profiles evolve from a localized concentration pattern to a widely distributed form as permeability anisotropy increases, accompanied by a remarkable outward expansion of the settlement influence zone. Both the magnitude and spatial distribution of settlement show high sensitivity to variations in permeability anisotropy. Based on these findings, a three-stage conceptual seepage structure model accounting for permeability anisotropy is proposed, characterized by vertically dominated flow, a transitional competition regime, and horizontally dominated flow. The staged evolution of seepage structures is shown to govern the non-monotonic variation in the dewatering influence radius and the spatial–temporal response of ground settlement. The results indicate a dual-scale influence mechanism of permeability anisotropy on dewatering-induced hydro-mechanical behavior, providing a theoretical basis for refined dewatering design and environmental impact assessment in deep excavation projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilience of Urban Underground Space: Planning, Design, Assessment and Enhancement)
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27 pages, 21794 KB  
Article
Experimental Results and Numerical Modeling of Full-Scale Exterior Beam–Column Joints in Low-Standard RC Buildings
by Emmanouil Golias and Maria Teresa De Risi
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081638 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 304
Abstract
Among the most critical structural deficiencies observed in existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings worldwide are inadequately detailed beam–column joint regions, often constructed without reinforcement. Despite extensive research, the numerical modeling of these critical components still remains a major challenge, as a robust and [...] Read more.
Among the most critical structural deficiencies observed in existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings worldwide are inadequately detailed beam–column joint regions, often constructed without reinforcement. Despite extensive research, the numerical modeling of these critical components still remains a major challenge, as a robust and universally accepted modeling framework has yet to be established, especially when extensive nonlinear analyses have to be performed. This study specifically addresses how joint reinforcement detailing governs the transition between flexure-dominated and shear-dominated joint behavior in non-ductile exterior sub-assemblages, and evaluates whether and how a simplified macro-model can reliably reproduce these mechanisms at full scale. The seismic behavior of exterior RC beam–column joints without adequate transverse reinforcement was first investigated herein through a full-scale experimental program. Five sub-assemblages were tested under quasi-static cyclic loading with increasing displacement history. They mainly differ for beam and column longitudinal reinforcement amount and joint panel (light or null) reinforcement layout, with equal geometric and material properties. The experimental results are first investigated in terms of global response, damage evolution, and energy dissipation capacity, comparing their seismic performance with varying beam or joint reinforcement. Then, nonlinear analyses were carried out by using a computationally efficient macro-modeling strategy in the OpenSees platform to numerically reproduce the observed response. The joint panel behavior was idealized through an empirical quadrilinear rotational spring, whereas flexural and fixed-end-rotation contributions are mechanically defined. The simulations reproduced the global load–drift envelopes, stiffness deterioration, and post-peak softening branch with satisfactory accuracy, although some discrepancies can be observed in the pinching effect. Nevertheless, the comparison between experimental and full-scale numerical results confirms that the adopted model provides reliable predictions of the cyclic response of non-ductile RC joints, also resulting in suitable solutions for extensive analyses as required, for example, for large-scale studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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24 pages, 1069 KB  
Article
How Do Waterfront Concert Halls in China Enhance Residents’ Well-Being? The Chain Mediating Effects of Perceived Restorativeness and Place Attachment
by Zitong Zhan, Xiaolong Chen and Tingzheng Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1637; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081637 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 432
Abstract
The psychological benefits of waterfront public spaces have become an important topic in environmental design and architectural research. However, existing studies have primarily focused on the direct relationship between physical environmental attributes and user satisfaction, with limited attention to the psychological mechanisms through [...] Read more.
The psychological benefits of waterfront public spaces have become an important topic in environmental design and architectural research. However, existing studies have primarily focused on the direct relationship between physical environmental attributes and user satisfaction, with limited attention to the psychological mechanisms through which architectural design influences residents’ well-being. This study examines waterfront concert halls as a type of cultural architectural space and develops a theoretical model integrating environmental restoration theory and place attachment theory. In this model, waterfront design perception is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct including water visibility, water accessibility, water harmony, and water interactivity, while perceived restorativeness and place attachment are treated as mediating variables, and residents’ well-being as the outcome variable. Based on questionnaire data collected from 1345 urban residents across six Chinese cities and seven waterfront concert hall cases, and analyzed using covariance-based structural equation modeling, the results show that waterfront design perception has a significant positive effect on residents’ well-being. Perceived restorativeness and place attachment both play mediating roles and jointly form a sequential pathway through which environmental perception is translated into psychological and emotional benefits. These findings extend the understanding of waterfront design from objective spatial attributes to subjective experiential processes and provide empirical support for the design of waterfront cultural architecture aimed at enhancing the well-being of urban residents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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28 pages, 7923 KB  
Article
Cultural Symbol Preferences of Visitors to Historical and Cultural Heritage Buildings: A Case Study of the Yellow Crane Tower Based on Social Media Data and Deep Learning
by Liyuan Li, Changzhi Zhang, Yibei Wang and Zack Lueng
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1636; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081636 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 337
Abstract
Against the backdrop of expanding digital dissemination and experiential transformation in cultural heritage, visitors’ visual attention and symbolic choices increasingly shape heritage cognition and value transmission. Taking the Yellow Crane Tower as a case study, this research constructs a cultural symbol recognition dataset [...] Read more.
Against the backdrop of expanding digital dissemination and experiential transformation in cultural heritage, visitors’ visual attention and symbolic choices increasingly shape heritage cognition and value transmission. Taking the Yellow Crane Tower as a case study, this research constructs a cultural symbol recognition dataset based on visitor-shared social media images and develops an enhanced ResNet-50 model for multi-label analysis. By integrating attention mechanisms and regularisation strategies, the model improves its capacity to capture complex cultural imagery, achieving a macro F1 score of 72.70% and a micro F1 score of 81.05% on the test set, indicating strong generalisation performance. The results reveal a significant imbalance in visual preferences: landmark symbols centred on the main architectural structure dominate at 32.95%, whereas culturally informative elements such as signage, cultural products, and interpretive facilities each account for less than 5%. Tag co-occurrence analysis further identifies three image production patterns: commemorative presentation, contextual documentation, and detail-oriented cultural photography reflecting different levels of heritage perception. Rather than directly proposing prescriptive strategies, the findings provide an empirical basis for informing future interventions aimed at shifting from landmark-focused viewing to deeper cultural perception. In this way, the study contributes to heritage display optimisation and research on visitor visual behaviour. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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25 pages, 2224 KB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimization of Green Construction Using an Engineering-Oriented Genetic Algorithm: Coordinated Trade-Offs Among Duration, Cost, and Carbon Emissions
by Bin Lv, Hongyan Gu and Kai Qiu
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1635; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081635 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 347
Abstract
To address insufficient carbon integration, weakly verifiable quality constraints, and unstable Pareto-set generation in construction-stage green decision-making, this study develops a multi-objective optimization model for construction mode configuration and an engineering-oriented genetic algorithm (GA) framework for Pareto solution generation under hard feasibility constraints. [...] Read more.
To address insufficient carbon integration, weakly verifiable quality constraints, and unstable Pareto-set generation in construction-stage green decision-making, this study develops a multi-objective optimization model for construction mode configuration and an engineering-oriented genetic algorithm (GA) framework for Pareto solution generation under hard feasibility constraints. In a construction organization scenario, duration, cost, and carbon emissions are formulated as parallel objectives, while a quality threshold, explicit process logic, and basic resource and workface-feasibility conditions are incorporated to ensure engineering implementability. Construction-stage carbon emissions are quantified using the emission factor method under an auditable activity-level accounting framework. The configured GA framework is compared with the conventional GA, the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II, and the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm III through repeated-run statistics and multi-metric evaluation. On the main case, it achieves the highest mean hypervolume (0.723 ± 0.074, mean ± standard deviation), the lowest mean spacing (0.076 ± 0.207), and the smallest average convergence generation (18.49 ± 2.57). The Pareto results reveal a clear trade-off among duration, cost, and carbon emissions, in which high-load beam-and-slab formwork and concrete-related activities dominate cost and carbon variation, whereas schedule advantage mainly depends on stronger compression of critical-chain activities and inter-floor handover. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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29 pages, 4368 KB  
Article
Integrating Smart Materials into Building Facade Design to Achieve Thermal Sustainability: A Case Study in Karbala, Iraq
by Saba Salih Shalal, Haider I. Alyasari, Zahraa Nasser Azzam, Ali Nadhim Shakir, Zainab Mahmood Malik and Zainab Hamid Mohson
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081634 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 399
Abstract
This study addresses a critical methodological gap in evaluating building envelope performance in hot, arid climates, the overreliance on annual energy indicators, which fail to capture transient thermal behavior during peak-load periods. In such environments, instantaneous heat gains, their intensity, and temporal distribution [...] Read more.
This study addresses a critical methodological gap in evaluating building envelope performance in hot, arid climates, the overreliance on annual energy indicators, which fail to capture transient thermal behavior during peak-load periods. In such environments, instantaneous heat gains, their intensity, and temporal distribution are decisive factors for cooling demand, occupant comfort, and grid stability. To overcome this limitation, a dynamic evaluation framework—the Thermal Adaptation Rating (TAC) system—is proposed. TAC integrates three interrelated indices—peak temperature reduction (ΔT_peak), relative peak cooling load reduction (ΔP_peak, %), and peak thermal delay (Δt_delay), representing thermal damping, load intensity mitigation, and temporal redistribution, respectively. A typical residential building in Karbala was modeled in DesignBuilder using the EnergyPlus engine, with inputs documented and calibration performed against real consumption data following ASHRAE standards (MBE and CV(RMSE)) to ensure reliability. The study examined advanced envelope systems, including thermochromic glass (TG), phase-change materials (PCMs), aerogel materials (AMs), and hybrid combinations. Results revealed that while AM achieved the greatest annual energy savings, its impact on instantaneous cooling load was limited. PCM, by contrast, effectively mitigated and delayed peak loads, enhancing thermal comfort (PMV/PPD). Hybrid systems, particularly TG-PCM, delivered the most balanced performance, simultaneously reducing peak cooling load and shifting its occurrence to reshape the cooling demand curve during critical periods. These findings demonstrate that annual indices alone are insufficient for evaluating envelope performance in extreme climates. Peak-condition analysis, expressed in terms of instantaneous cooling load, as operationalized through TAC, provides a more accurate representation of thermal behavior and offers a practical tool to guide envelope design decisions in hot, dry regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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43 pages, 2413 KB  
Systematic Review
Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks for Sustainable Building Construction: A PRISMA-Guided Systematic Review and TCCM Analysis
by Swati Sinha, Jayaraman Sethuraman Sudarsan and Abhijat Arun Abhyankar
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081633 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Global interest in sustainable building materials is increasing due to growing concerns regarding the environmental impacts of conventional construction materials, particularly fired clay bricks. Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEBs) have emerged as a viable, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable alternative for building construction. The [...] Read more.
Global interest in sustainable building materials is increasing due to growing concerns regarding the environmental impacts of conventional construction materials, particularly fired clay bricks. Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEBs) have emerged as a viable, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable alternative for building construction. The incorporation of waste-derived additives in CSEBs not only addresses waste management challenges but also enhances the functional performance of earthen materials. This study presents a comprehensive synthesis of existing research on the influence of fibers, binders, stabilizers, and production processes on the performance characteristics of CSEBs. A systematic literature review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines, resulting in the identification and analysis of 256 relevant studies. The selected literature was synthesized using the Theories, Contexts, Characteristics, and Methodologies (TCCM) framework to map research trends and methodological approaches. The review indicates that fiber reinforcement primarily improves flexural strength and thermal performance, while binders significantly enhance compressive strength and erosion resistance. The findings also demonstrate that selected waste materials can partially replace natural soil, provided minimum material and performance standards are satisfied. The study highlights the need for standardized manufacturing guidelines and testing protocols to improve the reliability, scalability, and wider adoption of CSEBs in sustainable building applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Eco-Friendly Building Materials and Innovative Structures)
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24 pages, 27840 KB  
Article
Decoding Public Perception of Brownfield-Transformed Urban Parks: An Interpretable Machine Learning Framework Integrating XGBoost–SHAP
by Xiaomin Wang, Xiangru Chen, Chao Yang, Zhongyuan Zhao and Xinling Chen
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1632; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081632 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Brownfield-transformed urban parks, particularly those derived from industrial heritage, play a critical role in both cultural preservation and public-space provision. However, existing studies often rely on linear models and general urban contexts, limiting their ability to capture nonlinear, interaction-driven perception and translate analytical [...] Read more.
Brownfield-transformed urban parks, particularly those derived from industrial heritage, play a critical role in both cultural preservation and public-space provision. However, existing studies often rely on linear models and general urban contexts, limiting their ability to capture nonlinear, interaction-driven perception and translate analytical results into design-oriented insights. To address this gap, this study develops an interpretable data-driven framework integrating NLP (natural language processing) with explainable machine learning. Using social media reviews from Shougang Park in Beijing, built environmental elements are identified and structured into four dimensions—Accessibility, Safety, Comfort, and Enjoyment. An XGBoost model combined with SHAP analysis is employed to examine variable importance, nonlinear relationships, and interaction effects. The results reveal that visitor satisfaction is governed by heterogeneous and nonlinear relationships rather than independent additive effects. Several variables exhibit threshold-like, diminishing, and inverted-U-shaped patterns, indicating sensitivity to intensity ranges. More importantly, spatial perception emerges from the nonlinear coupling of multiple elements, forming four representative interaction types: compensatory, inverted-U-shaped, context-dependent, and threshold-like relationships. Key interactions are concentrated around industrial landscape, leisure activities, and supporting facilities. Building on these findings, the study translates interactions into design-oriented strategies, emphasizing synergistic configuration, functional balance, moderated development intensity, and context- sensitive programming. By linking interpretable machine learning with spatial design, this research advances an interaction-oriented paradigm and provides a transferable framework for satisfaction-informed evaluation and optimization of brownfields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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20 pages, 4111 KB  
Article
Acoustic Characteristics of Coconut and Sugarcane Fibre Composites with Starch Binders: Effects of Fibre-to-Binder Ratio on Sound Absorption and Transmission Coefficient
by Nuushuun Archie Gboe, Robert Ružickij and Raimondas Grubliauskas
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081631 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 432
Abstract
The use of agricultural waste fibres and natural binders is being investigated as alternatives to synthetic indoor acoustic materials. However, few studies have compared the fibre type, biopolymer type, and fibre-to-binder ratio for both sound absorption and sound transmission within a single controlled [...] Read more.
The use of agricultural waste fibres and natural binders is being investigated as alternatives to synthetic indoor acoustic materials. However, few studies have compared the fibre type, biopolymer type, and fibre-to-binder ratio for both sound absorption and sound transmission within a single controlled composite system. This study investigated the acoustic performance of sugarcane fibre (SF) and coconut fibre (CF) with a fixed thickness of 20 mm and density of 200 kg/m3, mixed with cassava, corn and potato starch binders with fibre–binder ratios from 1:1.0 to 1:0.1. Sound absorption coefficient was measured with an impedance tube, according to ISO 10534-2, and the sound transmission coefficient was determined using a four-microphone impedance tube system, according to ASTM E2611. Porosity was also tested for its relation to acoustic behaviour. The results showed that the coconut fibre composite recorded higher peak absorption, including α = 0.95 for cassava 1:0.6 to 1:0.7 and corn 1:0.6, while sugarcane fibre showed stronger transmission resistance, with SF-CAS-200-1:0.3 decreasing from τ = 0.11 at 160 Hz to 0.02 at 5000 Hz, and SF-PT-200-1:0.4 from τ = 0.10 to 0.03. The highest porosity values were 85.29%, recorded for SC-CAS-200-1:0.1, and 84.13% for CF-CAS-200-1:0.1. Overall, sugarcane fibre composites offered the best balance of absorption and low transmission, indicating strong potential for sustainable indoor acoustic panels, such as ceiling linings and wall systems. Further research should evaluate mechanical strength, fire performance, durability, and moisture resistance to support practical building applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Sustainable Green Building Materials)
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19 pages, 1044 KB  
Article
Evaluating Evaporative Cooling-Assisted Residential HVAC System Using Whole-Building Simulation
by Nelson Fumo, Xavier Martinez, Abel Euceda and Dylan Miller
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081630 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 351
Abstract
This study evaluates the performance of evaporative cooling (EC)-assisted residential HVAC systems within the broader context of improving energy efficiency in U.S. housing. Using whole-building energy simulation in OpenStudio, a representative single-family house was analyzed across multiple climate zones under three configurations: (1) [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the performance of evaporative cooling (EC)-assisted residential HVAC systems within the broader context of improving energy efficiency in U.S. housing. Using whole-building energy simulation in OpenStudio, a representative single-family house was analyzed across multiple climate zones under three configurations: (1) a baseline air-source heat pump, (2) EC applied at the outdoor air intake, and (3) EC applied at the heat pump inlet. Annual energy use, indoor temperature and humidity, thermal comfort (PMV), water consumption, and economic performance were assessed. Results indicate that system configuration exerts a stronger influence on performance than climate variability. Specifically, the EC at the heat pump inlet configuration reduced annual energy consumption by up to 5.1%, whereas the EC at the outdoor air intake configuration yielded negligible or inconsistent savings (generally within ±1%). The heat pump inlet EC configuration consistently reduced annual energy consumption and showed favorable economic performance in 10 of 16 climate zones, whereas outdoor air intake configuration yielded limited energy savings and was not economically viable. Indoor temperature control remained stable across all cases, while relative humidity increased with EC operation but remained within acceptable limits under appropriate control strategies. The findings indicate that EC integration can improve residential HVAC performance when properly configured, with system placement and humidity control being critical determinants of effectiveness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Energy Performance and Simulations)
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22 pages, 13118 KB  
Article
Occupancy-Aware Digital Twin for Sustainable Buildings
by Ivan Smirnov and Fulvio Re Cecconi
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081629 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 472
Abstract
This paper proposes a human-centric digital twin (DT) framework balancing energy efficiency with occupant well-being in existing buildings, addressing the lack of actionable insights in data-driven facility management and comfort issues common in fully automated systems. A “Human-in-the-loop” approach using dual-KPIs integrates real-time [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a human-centric digital twin (DT) framework balancing energy efficiency with occupant well-being in existing buildings, addressing the lack of actionable insights in data-driven facility management and comfort issues common in fully automated systems. A “Human-in-the-loop” approach using dual-KPIs integrates real-time IoT data and visualization to evaluate sustainable energy use via Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ). A novel occupancy-inference method tracks efficiency in legacy buildings without granular metering, implemented through a case study of 26 office rooms. Results indicate that the framework successfully identifies significant energy wastage and comfort anomalies without compromising well-being. Integrating real-time analytics with human oversight enables more resilient management than fully automated alternatives, particularly for detecting non-operational heating waste. The occupancy inference method was validated against ground truth, achieving 81% accuracy, with limitations regarding decay lag discussed. This research offers a cost-effective diagnostic tool for legacy buildings lacking sub-metering, lowering DT adoption barriers, and shifting maintenance from reactive to data-driven strategies. The framework leverages human expertise and infers occupancy-normalized energy metrics from standard IEQ sensors, proposing a human-centric DT framework to bridge the gap between raw sensor data and actionable facility management insights. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sustainable Buildings in the Built Environment)
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22 pages, 3802 KB  
Article
Durability and Mechanical Performance of Sisal-Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composites for Permanent Formwork Applications
by Igor Machado da Silva Parente, Daniel Véras Ribeiro, Ruan Carlos de Araújo Moura and Paulo Roberto Lopes Lima
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081628 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 455
Abstract
Reinforced concrete structures must balance immediate structural performance with long-term durability against environmental degradation, particularly carbonation-induced corrosion. While traditional cast-in-place concrete covers serve as the primary barrier, their substitution with prefabricated permanent formworks made of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites often fails to provide the [...] Read more.
Reinforced concrete structures must balance immediate structural performance with long-term durability against environmental degradation, particularly carbonation-induced corrosion. While traditional cast-in-place concrete covers serve as the primary barrier, their substitution with prefabricated permanent formworks made of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites often fails to provide the necessary protective qualities required for aggressive environments. This study evaluates the durability and mechanical behavior of sisal-fiber-reinforced cementitious composites specifically engineered for use as permanent formwork. Short sisal fibers, treated by hornification to enhance dimensional stability and fiber–matrix adhesion, were incorporated at dosages of 2%, 4%, and 6% by weight. The experimental program included tests for water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity, axial compression, three-point flexural strength, and accelerated carbonation. The results indicated that composites with 2% and 4% of fibers exhibited reduced water absorption, sorptivity, compressive strength, and modulus of elasticity compared to the reference cement matrix. Residual stress values further demonstrated that the composites maintain significant post-cracking strength and stress transfer capacity, confirming their viability for structural elements. Although sisal-fiber-reinforced cementitious composites exhibit higher porosity and water absorption than conventional concrete used as reinforcement cover, they show sufficient resistance to carbonation to ensure a service life exceeding 50 years for reinforced concrete elements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Materials for Sustainable Construction)
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29 pages, 5640 KB  
Article
Activity Patterns and Spatial Distribution of Older Adults in Community Parks: A SOPARC-Based Case Study in Changsha, China
by Tao Zhongjun, Sreetheran Maruthaveeran, Mohd Fairuz Shahidan and Xiang Yanci
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081627 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 463
Abstract
Drawing on 964 field observations from typical community parks in Changsha, this study utilizes the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) alongside Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) to quantitatively dissect the intrinsic associations between older adults’ outdoor activity patterns and micro-spatial [...] Read more.
Drawing on 964 field observations from typical community parks in Changsha, this study utilizes the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) alongside Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) to quantitatively dissect the intrinsic associations between older adults’ outdoor activity patterns and micro-spatial characteristics. The findings reveal a pronounced demographic differentiation in spatial utilization. Specifically, female-dominated collective activities, such as square dancing, exhibit a profound reliance on central plazas with unobstructed sightlines to cultivate a sense of social security. Conversely, male users demonstrate a distinct preference for static social interactions, including playing chess or cards, within semi-enclosed and shaded spaces beneath a tree canopy. Beyond gender distinctions, age-related spatial anchoring is also evident. Intergenerational caregiving activities among the younger old cohort (aged 55 to 74) are exclusively concentrated around children’s playgrounds, whereas older old individuals and those with impaired mobility rely heavily on densely distributed micro-scale resting amenities. Driven by these empirical insights, this research contends that age-friendly park design must transcend generic accessibility standards, advocating instead for a “categorized spatial provision” strategy. By meticulously balancing open exhibition plazas, semi-private shaded units, and composite caregiving zones within a single park ecosystem, this approach can effectively accommodate the multifaceted health and social requirements of various older adult subgroups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Healthy Aging and Built Environment)
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23 pages, 26514 KB  
Article
Mechanical and Durability Properties of Extrudable Cob Mixes with Recycled Materials
by Alessandro Rossin, Daniel Trento, Amandeep Singh Sidhu, Viviana Letelier-Gonzalez and Flora Faleschini
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081625 - 21 Apr 2026
Viewed by 447
Abstract
Durability of clay-based mixes is often considered a limitation for their use in modern construction projects, especially in those involving additive manufacturing techniques. This study focuses on developing sustainable extrudable cob mixes and investigating the effect of sand particle grading, curing regime and [...] Read more.
Durability of clay-based mixes is often considered a limitation for their use in modern construction projects, especially in those involving additive manufacturing techniques. This study focuses on developing sustainable extrudable cob mixes and investigating the effect of sand particle grading, curing regime and mix composition on compressive strength, flexural strength, stress–strain response, capillary water absorption, wetting-drying cycles effect, and abrasion resistance. Results showed a significant positive impact of fine-sized sand addition into the mix on the mechanical strength and durability, due to better compaction and denser final cob mixes. Extending oven curing improves the compressive and flexural strength of all mixes due to the accelerated strength development from the higher temperature exposure. Lastly, the addition of high clay content allows for improving the compressive and flexural strength at prolonged curing aging under normal air-drying conditions. These mixes also exhibit low water absorption. Conversely, results revealed that the lime content plays a crucial role in reducing surface wear, with lime-rich mixes exhibiting lower erosion rates than the other mixes. Lime-stabilized cob mixes also demonstrate improved durability under cyclic wetting and drying. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Green Construction Materials and Construction Innovation)
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19 pages, 5009 KB  
Article
Navigating the Trade-Off Between Decarbonization and Thermal Comfort: A Simulation-Driven Optimization for Office Buildings Under Health Constraints
by Ningning Li, Xin Yang, Yuxuan Zhao, Yuexia Sun, Yanqiu Du and Jiying Liu
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1626; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081626 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 491
Abstract
Office buildings are significant contributors to energy consumption and carbon emissions due to high occupancy density and prolonged operation. To balance decarbonization with indoor environmental quality, this study proposes a simulation-driven multi-strategy optimization framework for a three-story office building in Jinan. This study [...] Read more.
Office buildings are significant contributors to energy consumption and carbon emissions due to high occupancy density and prolonged operation. To balance decarbonization with indoor environmental quality, this study proposes a simulation-driven multi-strategy optimization framework for a three-story office building in Jinan. This study integrates EnergyPlus 23.2, jEPlus+EA 2.3.2, and the NSGA-II algorithm to co-optimize building performance. We evaluate the synergistic effects of roof photovoltaic coverage ratio, night ventilation turn-on temperature difference, and HVAC control strategies on carbon emissions and thermal comfort, while ensuring that CO2 concentrations remain within health thresholds. The results indicate that the night ventilation temperature turn-on temperature difference is the most influential parameter. It yields standardized regression coefficients (SRCs) of 0.7456 for carbon emissions and 0.5325 for thermal discomfort. The Pareto-optimal solution achieves a carbon footprint of approximately 477 tCO2, with only 8.8% indoor discomfort hours. This framework provides a robust, practical approach for the low-carbon and healthy operation of office buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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20 pages, 7188 KB  
Article
Machine Learning-Based Method for Predicting the Mechanical Response of Prestressed Cable Tensioning in Aqueduct Structures
by Yanke Shi, Xufang Liu, Yanjun Chang, Jie Chen, Duoxin Zhang and Yuping Kuang
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081624 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 283
Abstract
The mechanical behavior of aqueduct structures exhibits highly complex characteristics during prestress tensioning, making it difficult for the traditional double-control method to accurately predict and real-time control the key stresses. To improve the construction safety of prestressed tensioning and the prediction accuracy of [...] Read more.
The mechanical behavior of aqueduct structures exhibits highly complex characteristics during prestress tensioning, making it difficult for the traditional double-control method to accurately predict and real-time control the key stresses. To improve the construction safety of prestressed tensioning and the prediction accuracy of structural prestress responses, this study develops a rapid structural mechanical property prediction method based on machine learning. Taking prestressed aqueducts as the research object, a system of “finite element simulation—sample generation—machine learning prediction” is established. Firstly, multiple groups of tensioning parameter combinations are designed via Latin hypercube sampling, and the stress responses are obtained through finite element analysis to form a high-quality training sample library. Subsequently, critical structural features are extracted based on mesh reconstruction, and stress prediction models are established using the K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) and Random Forest algorithms respectively; the prediction performance of both models is compared and validated against finite element simulation results. Furthermore, the prediction outputs of the optimal machine learning model were used to analyze the stress distribution and potential stress concentration issues of the structure during the tensioning process. The comparative analysis results indicate that the Random Forest model performs best in terms of stress prediction accuracy and stability, and its prediction results are highly consistent with those of the finite element method. Compared with traditional finite element condition analysis, the machine learning model can complete multi-condition stress prediction in a shorter time. Leveraging its high-efficiency prediction capability, local high-stress areas of the structure in the tensioning construction scheme can be identified, thereby providing effective optimization schemes to improve the stress distribution. The mechanical response prediction method for the prestress tensioning process of aqueducts, with machine learning as the core, constructed in this paper realizes the rapid and reliable prediction of key stresses throughout the entire prestress tensioning process. This method can be applied to assist in optimizing tensioning construction schemes and construction monitoring, providing a practical technical solution for safety control of aqueduct structures during the prestress construction stage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Static and Dynamic Performance of Steel and Composite Structures)
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27 pages, 18721 KB  
Article
Explainable Vision Analytics for Adaptive Campus Design: Diagnosing Multi-Dimensional Perceptual Differences
by Yan Lin, Wangchenxiao Liu and Xi Sun
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1623; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081623 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 320
Abstract
Campus streetscapes are a key part of universities’ everyday public realm, yet the same scene may be perceived positively in one dimension while negatively in another. To diagnose such multi-dimensional perceptual differences and translate them into actionable design evidence, this study develops an [...] Read more.
Campus streetscapes are a key part of universities’ everyday public realm, yet the same scene may be perceived positively in one dimension while negatively in another. To diagnose such multi-dimensional perceptual differences and translate them into actionable design evidence, this study develops an interpretable vision analytics framework for adaptive campus design. Using 72,733 Baidu Street View images collected from 41 campuses in mainland China, the study integrates ResNet-50-based perception prediction, spatial element extraction, XGBoost–SHAP-based mechanism interpretation, Kruskal–Wallis H testing, and GIS-based scene mapping. Supported by supplementary in situ validation, six types of multi-dimensional perceptual differences were identified. Sky, buildings, vegetation, hardscape, and terrain were found to be the five most important spatial elements overall, among which sky, buildings, and vegetation repeatedly emerged as the dominant core elements distinguishing different perceptual types. These elements do not act independently or linearly, but jointly shape different types of multi-dimensional perceptual differences through nonlinear threshold effects and interactions. These perceptual difference types were further found to cluster in recognizable campus scenes, including main roads, plazas, lawns, forest belts, and lakeside spaces. Based on these findings, scene-specific piecemeal optimization strategies were derived to support the coordinated enhancement of perceived safety, liveliness, and beauty. Overall, the study shows that campus perception is shaped by holistic spatial configurations rather than the simple accumulation of isolated elements, and provides a quantitative basis for iterative, feedback-oriented adaptive campus design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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34 pages, 2126 KB  
Article
BIM in the Kurdistan Region: Assessing Stakeholders’ Perspectives on Current Practices, Obstacles, and a Conceptual Strategic Framework for Residential Projects
by Karukh Hassan M Karim, Omar Qarani Aziz and Noori Sadeq Ali
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081622 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 397
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) has emerged as a transformative approach for improving efficiency, coordination, and sustainability in the construction industry; however, its adoption in developing regions remains limited. In the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRG), BIM implementation—particularly within the residential construction sector—remains at [...] Read more.
Building Information Modelling (BIM) has emerged as a transformative approach for improving efficiency, coordination, and sustainability in the construction industry; however, its adoption in developing regions remains limited. In the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRG), BIM implementation—particularly within the residential construction sector—remains at an early stage and lacks comprehensive empirical investigation. This study aims to assess stakeholders’ perspectives on current BIM practices, identify key adoption barriers, and develop a context-specific strategic framework to support BIM implementation. A mixed-method research design was employed, incorporating literature review, expert validation through semi-structured interviews, and a structured questionnaire survey. A total of 319 valid responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Relative Importance Index (RII), Cronbach’s alpha for reliability, Spearman’s rank correlation, independent samples t-tests, and one-way ANOVA. In addition to ranking barriers, an inter-barrier correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships, clustering patterns, and hierarchical structure of BIM adoption challenges. The results indicate that while BIM awareness is moderately established among stakeholders, its practical application remains limited, particularly beyond the design phase. The most critical barriers include lack of training and expertise, absence of regulatory frameworks and standards, insufficient government support, and financial constraints. The correlation analysis reveals that these barriers are interdependent, with policy and institutional deficiencies acting as root drivers influencing technical, financial, and awareness-related challenges. Based on these findings, the study proposes a four pillar conceptual strategic framework encompassing human capital development, regulatory and standardization enablement, awareness and demand generation, and organizational and collaborative enhancement. The framework is explicitly derived from empirical results, linking barrier clusters to prioritized strategies, thereby enhancing its practical applicability. This study contributes to the existing literature by providing one of the first multi-province empirical assessments of BIM adoption in the KRG residential sector, integrating statistical validation with strategic development, and offering transferable insights for other developing regions at a similar stage of BIM adoption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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14 pages, 1858 KB  
Article
Effect of Fiber Wrapping Orientations on the Hysteretic Performance of Triple-Tube GFRP–Steel Buckling-Restrained Braces
by Jialu Ma, Linkai Yang, Junkai Lu, Wuhan Li and Jinwei Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081621 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 363
Abstract
Buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) are widely used to improve the seismic performance of high-rise and long-span structures. This study proposes a triple-tube GFRP–steel buckling-restrained brace (TTGS-BRB) as a lightweight and corrosion-resistant energy-dissipating member for such structures. To investigate its hysteretic behavior, pseudo-static tests were [...] Read more.
Buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) are widely used to improve the seismic performance of high-rise and long-span structures. This study proposes a triple-tube GFRP–steel buckling-restrained brace (TTGS-BRB) as a lightweight and corrosion-resistant energy-dissipating member for such structures. To investigate its hysteretic behavior, pseudo-static tests were conducted on two scaled TTGS-BRB specimens with different wrapping orientations and end details, and a finite element model was established and validated against the test results for further parametric analyses. The test results showed that the specimen with the ±30° wrapping configuration and end stiffeners exhibited better hysteretic performance than the 90° specimen without end stiffeners, with the yield force increasing from 147.98 kN to 161.68 kN, the cumulative plastic deformation (CPD) increasing from 7.49 to 209.56, and the cumulative plastic energy (CPE) increasing from 5.25 to 199.12. Based on the validated finite element model, the effects of fiber wrapping orientation, end stiffeners, interfacial gap, Pcr/Py ratio, and steel tube diameter-to-thickness ratio on the hysteretic performance of full-scale TTGS-BRBs were systematically investigated. The numerical results indicate that wrapping orientations within the range of ±0° to ±45°, end stiffening at both ends, an interfacial gap of 1.5 mm between GFRP and steel, an appropriate Pcr/Py ratio, and a steel tube diameter-to-thickness ratio of less than 24 are beneficial for improving the hysteretic performance of TTGS-BRBs. These findings provide useful references for the design and application of TTGS-BRBs in practical engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research in Steel Structures)
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24 pages, 5736 KB  
Article
Improved Parameter-Driven Automated Three-Class Segmentation for Concrete CT: A Reproducible Pipeline for Large-Scale Dataset Production
by Youxi Wang, Tianqi Zhang and Xinxiao Chen
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081620 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 294
Abstract
The automated production of large-scale labeled datasets from concrete X-ray computed tomography (CT) images is a fundamental prerequisite for training and validating deep learning-based segmentation models. However, existing methods either require extensive manual annotation or rely on domain-specific deep learning models that themselves [...] Read more.
The automated production of large-scale labeled datasets from concrete X-ray computed tomography (CT) images is a fundamental prerequisite for training and validating deep learning-based segmentation models. However, existing methods either require extensive manual annotation or rely on domain-specific deep learning models that themselves demand labeled data—a circular dependency. This paper presents a parameter-driven three-class segmentation framework that automatically classifies each pixel in a concrete CT slice into one of three material phases: void (air pores and cracks), coarse aggregate, and mortar matrix, generating annotation masks suitable for large-scale dataset production without manual labeling. The proposed method combines: (1) fixed-threshold void detection calibrated to concrete CT grayscale characteristics; (2) adaptive percentile-based initial segmentation responsive to image-specific statistics; (3) multi-criteria connected component scoring based on area, shape descriptors (circularity, solidity, compactness, extent, aspect ratio), intensity distribution, and boundary gradient; (4) material science-informed size constraints aligned with concrete phase volume fractions; and (5) a material continuity enforcement module that applies topological hole-filling and conditional convex-hull consolidation to eliminate internal contamination within accepted aggregate regions, reducing boundary roughness by 7.6% and recovering misclassified boundary pixels. All parameters are centralized in a configuration file, enabling reproducible batch processing of 224 × 224 pixel CT slices at 0.07–1.12 s per image. Evaluated on 1007 224 × 224 concrete CT patches cropped from 200 representative scan frames, the framework produces three-class segmentation masks with physically consistent void fractions (mean 3.2%), aggregate fractions (mean 32.4%), and mortar fractions (mean 64.4%), all within ranges reported in the concrete CT literature (used as a dataset-scale QC screen, not a validation metric). Primary outputs and the archived image–mask pairs for this work are provided as an 8-bit patch archive. For pixel-wise validation, we report IoU, Dice, and pixel accuracy on an independently labeled subset that can be unambiguously paired with the released predictions: averaged over 57 matched patches, mean pixel accuracy is 88.6%, macro-mean IoU is 74.7%, and macro-mean Dice is 84.9%. The framework provides a fully automated annotation pipeline for dataset production, eliminating manual labeling costs for concrete CT image collections. The generated datasets are suitable for training semantic segmentation networks such as U-Net and its variants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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26 pages, 8872 KB  
Article
A Lifecycle BIM-Based Framework for Safe and Efficient Underground Utility Management
by Kamran Ullah and Waqas Arshad Tanoli
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1619; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081619 - 20 Apr 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 478
Abstract
Underground utilities form an essential part of urban infrastructure, yet their importance often becomes apparent only when service disruptions occur. Excavation activities for maintenance, relocation, or new construction carry considerable risks, including utility strikes, project delays, worker injuries, and even fatalities. These risks [...] Read more.
Underground utilities form an essential part of urban infrastructure, yet their importance often becomes apparent only when service disruptions occur. Excavation activities for maintenance, relocation, or new construction carry considerable risks, including utility strikes, project delays, worker injuries, and even fatalities. These risks are largely driven by incomplete or inaccurate information about the location, depth, or material properties of buried utilities. To address this challenge, this study proposes a comprehensive Building Information Modeling (BIM)-based framework for managing underground utilities throughout their lifecycles. The framework is structured into five key stages: data acquisition, data processing, modeling, system application, and data updating. A highway project was used as a case study to validate the proposed approach. The study involved the integrated modeling and visualization of the highway corridor, underground gas pipelines, and overground high-voltage transmission pylons using Autodesk Civil 3D, InfraWorks, and Navisworks. The developed model and workflow were subsequently reviewed with the client department. Application of the framework to a 5 km highway corridor identified five utility-road conflict points (three subsurface gas pipeline intersections and two overground pylon encroachments) that were not detectable from existing 2D records. Expert review by the client department confirmed that the BIM-based visualization and 4D simulation improved construction planning clarity and supported proactive utility relocation decisions. By simplifying information workflows and enabling collaboration among stakeholders, the proposed framework demonstrates strong potential to improve excavation safety, enhance decision-making, and support the wider adoption of BIM for underground utility management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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25 pages, 7466 KB  
Article
Influence of Existing Pile Group and Strata Induced by Excavation of the Adjacent Twin Tunnels with Small Clearance
by Caixia Guo, Lin Ji, Mingshe Sun, Houting Jiang and Wenzheng Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1618; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081618 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 368
Abstract
In urban subway construction, shield tunneling inevitably passes in close proximity to existing pile foundations, inducing adverse effects on their internal forces and deformations. Taking the twin shield tunnels with small clearance adjacent to the bridge piles as the engineering background, this study [...] Read more.
In urban subway construction, shield tunneling inevitably passes in close proximity to existing pile foundations, inducing adverse effects on their internal forces and deformations. Taking the twin shield tunnels with small clearance adjacent to the bridge piles as the engineering background, this study establishes a three-dimensional finite element numerical model to investigate the deformation and internal force responses of the adjacent pile foundations under different pile lengths, twin-tunnel construction sequences, and tunnel face pressure conditions. The findings indicate that the primary influence zone affected by twin-tunnel excavation extends approximately twice the tunnel diameter (2D) before and after the pile foundation location. Compared with short piles, longer piles exhibit smaller vertical displacements. Meanwhile, the lateral displacements, additional axial forces and bending moments of medium and long piles increase, with their maximum values occurring near the tunnel centerline. For the near pile, when the right tunnel is excavated first, compared with the condition of the left-tunnel-first excavation, the lateral and vertical displacements slightly increase. In addition, the maximum additional axial force increases by 38.8%, while the maximum additional bending moment decreases by approximately 21%. Tunnel face pressure exerts a moderate influence on the vertical displacement of both the surrounding soil and pile foundation, while its effect on lateral displacement and internal forces is relatively insignificant. The tunnel face pressure within the range of 200 kPa to 300 kPa provides optimal control over pile foundation deformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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24 pages, 21145 KB  
Article
How Are the Parallel Channels of Visual Appearance and Social Vitality Helpful in Generating the Imageability of Characteristic Districts? An Empirical Study Grounded in the S-O-R Framework and Integrated Multi-Source Data
by Wenlong Lan, Yibo Zheng, Ze He and Qingwen Rong
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081617 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 359
Abstract
Imageability is a cognitive measure of environmental differentiation and place memory. However, the existing literature focuses mainly on static morphological descriptions or subjective perception, without systematic quantitative studies of how physical environment and behavioral activity jointly generate the imageability of characteristic districts. This [...] Read more.
Imageability is a cognitive measure of environmental differentiation and place memory. However, the existing literature focuses mainly on static morphological descriptions or subjective perception, without systematic quantitative studies of how physical environment and behavioral activity jointly generate the imageability of characteristic districts. This limits active responses to the rise of “placelessness” in numerous cities. Based on the S-O-R theory, this study proposes a “visual–activity” two-channel mediation model. Based on 65 typical characteristic districts in Wuhan, and using multi-source data in the research, PLS-SEM was employed to systematically study the process that influences imageability in urban environments. It was found that (1) behavioral activity serves as the core mediating link between the physical environment and imageability; (2) scenic beauty exerts a partial mediating effect between visual sensitivity and imageability; (3) vitality exerts a full mediating effect between activity support and imageability. This study is expected to provide a scientific foundation for design refinements, quality enhancement, and place identity construction in urban characteristic districts oriented toward perceptual experience in the post-industrial era. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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21 pages, 9107 KB  
Article
Experimental and ML Modeling of Drying Shrinkage and Water Loss in Low-Heat Cement Concrete Under Extreme Plateau Curing
by Guohui Zhang, Zhipeng Yang, Rongheng Duan, Zhuang Yan and Gongfei Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1616; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081616 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 330
Abstract
To investigate concrete drying shrinkage in high-altitude environments, moisture evaporation and shrinkage rates were examined under combined curing regimes of four temperatures (40 °C, 20 °C, 0 °C, −10 °C) and three relative humidities (RH40%, RH60%, RH80%). Curing temperature and humidity primarily regulate [...] Read more.
To investigate concrete drying shrinkage in high-altitude environments, moisture evaporation and shrinkage rates were examined under combined curing regimes of four temperatures (40 °C, 20 °C, 0 °C, −10 °C) and three relative humidities (RH40%, RH60%, RH80%). Curing temperature and humidity primarily regulate shrinkage deformation by altering the internal moisture evaporation rate. Both evaporation and shrinkage rates exhibited a rapid initial increase, followed by deceleration, and finally stabilization with increasing age. A strong positive correlation was observed between these two parameters. The high-temperature and low-humidity condition (40 °C, RH40%) induced the most severe shrinkage. Four machine learning algorithms (XGBoost, RF, ANN, and KNN) were used to construct prediction models. After hyperparameter optimization and cross-validation, the RF models exhibited superior generalization and robustness (test set R2 > 0.94). The model accurately captures the complex non-linear relationship between environmental parameters and shrinkage. SHAP analysis on the optimal models identified the moisture evaporation rate as the primary driving factor. The analysis quantified the non-linear contributions of temperature and age, alongside the inhibitory effect of humidity. The study verified the consistency between data-driven models and physical mechanisms. This study elucidates the shrinkage mechanism under extreme conditions. It provides a reliable reference for crack control and life prediction in high-altitude engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geopolymers and Low Carbon Building Materials for Infrastructures)
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28 pages, 8935 KB  
Article
Wind-Sound Synergy and Fractal Design: Intelligent, Adaptive Acoustic Façades for High-Performance, Climate-Responsive Buildings
by Lingge Tan, Xinyue Zhang, Donghui Cui and Stephen Jia Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1615; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081615 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 391
Abstract
The building façade serves as the primary interface between the built environment and external climate, marking the transition from static regulation to dynamic response in climate-adaptive design. While existing research predominantly addresses periodic climatic elements such as temperature and solar radiation, the highly [...] Read more.
The building façade serves as the primary interface between the built environment and external climate, marking the transition from static regulation to dynamic response in climate-adaptive design. While existing research predominantly addresses periodic climatic elements such as temperature and solar radiation, the highly stochastic wind environment and its potential for internal acoustic problems remain systematically unexplored. This study investigates the acoustic modulation mechanism of building façades under dynamic wind conditions through a simulation-based methodology. The primary aim is to demonstrate the use of active control to mitigate the influence of fluctuating wind on the internal acoustic environment of buildings with open windows or semi-open boundaries, focusing on the coupling between stochastic wind fields and architectural acoustics in humid subtropical climates. We propose a wind-responsive adaptive acoustic façade system employing fractal geometry and configurable delay strategies, and develop a high-fidelity simulation framework to quantify how façade geometry and activation logic regulate acoustic parameters under varying wind conditions (1–8 m/s). Results indicate that: (1) support vector regression-based mapping of wind speed to delay strategies maintains key sound-field parameters (Lateral Fraction (LF), Speech Clarity (C50), and Early Decay Time to Reverberation Time ratio (EDT/RT30)) within 10% fluctuation across wind regimes; (2) fractal configurations achieve balanced wide-band (125 Hz–8 kHz) performance, with SPL fluctuation <3 dB, spectral tilt (+0.3 dB), and reverberation time slope <0.3; (3) configurational switching between column (high LF) and row (high C50) arrangements enables dynamic trade-off between spatial impression and speech clarity. This work establishes an integrated framework coupling wind dynamics, façade morphology, and acoustic modulation to regulate objective indoor acoustic parameters. Based on the simulated omnidirectional point-source model, the results show that key acoustic indicators remain stable across varying wind conditions, providing a theoretical and quantifiable basis for climate-responsive acoustic envelope design. Future work will include empirical prototype testing and listening tests to determine whether these simulated acoustic parameters translate into improved comfort and well-being for occupants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Improvement of the Indoor Acoustic Environment)
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29 pages, 704 KB  
Article
The Integration Readiness in Sustainable Architectural Practice: A Phase-Aware Model of Environmental Design
by Anna Bocheńska-Skałecka, Tadeusz Kuczyński, Marta Weber-Siwirska and Alicja Maciejko
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1614; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081614 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 357
Abstract
The integration of digital tools and environmental design methods is widely recognised as essential for sustainable architectural practice. However, their influence on early design decisions and lifecycle continuity remains limited. This study introduces the concept of integration readiness and operationalises it through the [...] Read more.
The integration of digital tools and environmental design methods is widely recognised as essential for sustainable architectural practice. However, their influence on early design decisions and lifecycle continuity remains limited. This study introduces the concept of integration readiness and operationalises it through the Integrated Environmental Design Framework (ILPP+), which links environmental methods to project phases, decision leverage, and organisational conditions. An exploratory survey of 37 architectural design offices in the Lower Silesian region of Poland was conducted to examine how BIM, life cycle assessment (LCA), passive strategies, performance-based analysis, and monitoring practices are embedded in design workflows. The analysis combines descriptive statistics with exploratory correlation analysis to identify relationships between selected integration dimensions. The results indicate uneven patterns of integration. Passive strategies and simulations show moderate coupling (ρ = 0.60), while weaker relationships between simulations and structured decision processes (ρ = 0.40) suggest that analytical tools are not consistently used as decision-support mechanisms. Similarly, BIM shows only partial integration with LCA (ρ = 0.41) and post-occupancy evaluation (ρ = 0.46), indicating limited lifecycle continuity within the analysed sample. These findings suggest that environmental integration may be constrained not by the availability of tools but by their positioning within decision processes and across project phases. The study highlights the importance of aligning analytical methods with high-leverage design stages and strengthening feedback loops between design and operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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22 pages, 5636 KB  
Article
Dynamic Response of Ancient Dowel-Connected Multi-Drum Columns: A 3D Finite Element Study of Friction Effects
by Olympia K. Panagouli and Maria Kafetsi
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1613; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081613 - 20 Apr 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
The dynamic response of ancient multi-drum columns, commonly found in historical monuments, is characterized by complex nonlinear mechanisms including rocking, sliding, and wobbling. Unlike modern monolithic columns, these structures consist of large, unbonded stone drums that rotate and interact dynamically during ground motion, [...] Read more.
The dynamic response of ancient multi-drum columns, commonly found in historical monuments, is characterized by complex nonlinear mechanisms including rocking, sliding, and wobbling. Unlike modern monolithic columns, these structures consist of large, unbonded stone drums that rotate and interact dynamically during ground motion, resulting in highly nonlinear behavior due to intermittent impacts and evolving contact surfaces. The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of the friction coefficient at the interfaces on the dynamic response of multi-drum columns. Two structural configurations are considered: (i) simple free-standing multi-drum columns, and (ii) multi-drum columns connected with iron dowels, replicating ancient Greek construction techniques. The columns analyzed are representative of the colonnade system of the Gymnasium of Ancient Messene, Greece. Sinusoidal base excitations with varying characteristics are applied, and parametric study is conducted by varying the interfacial friction coefficient. The results indicate that in the first configuration, low friction promotes interfacial sliding, leading to enhanced energy dissipation, a softened rocking response, and a reduced overturning frequency range. In the second configuration, variations in friction have a limited effect on the collapse frequency range, because at lower friction levels strong excitations lead to dowel reinsertion failure over a wide frequency range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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21 pages, 6535 KB  
Article
Impact of Bearing Plate Geometry on Local Compressive Strength of Concrete Under Concentric Loading: An Experimental Work
by Sabry Fayed, Alireza Bahrami, Ramy I. Shahin, Yahia Iskander, Yahya M. Bin Mahfouz and Mohamed Ghalla
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1612; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081612 - 19 Apr 2026
Viewed by 367
Abstract
Sometimes only a portion of the surface of a concrete element is loaded, which causes stress concentration in that region. To safely transfer concentric loads to concrete components such as column bases, short cantilevers, superstructure piers, post-tensioned elements, and support anchors, it is [...] Read more.
Sometimes only a portion of the surface of a concrete element is loaded, which causes stress concentration in that region. To safely transfer concentric loads to concrete components such as column bases, short cantilevers, superstructure piers, post-tensioned elements, and support anchors, it is imperative to investigate the local compressive characteristics of concrete. To learn more about this subject, further research is required, as there are currently insufficient studies in this field. Therefore, the local compressive behavior of concrete under concentric stresses is the main focus of this work. Concrete is represented as block samples with dimensions of 200 × 200 × 250 mm. A stiff steel plate is used to apply concentric loading on the surface of the samples. The primary parameters are the bearing plate dimensions, shape (square, rectangle, and circular with varying areas), and rectangularity. Additionally, the bearing plate’s movement is examined. The stress-slip curves, ultimate bearing strengths, failures, and related slippages of the tested samples are discussed. The findings revealed that the upper surface of the concrete samples exhibited localized deterioration beneath the bearing plate. Additionally, the ultimate bearing strength of the sample loaded with the 6 × 6 cm square plate was 163% greater than that of the sample loaded with the 10 × 10 cm square plate. Furthermore, the sample loaded with the circular plate with a diameter of 4 cm had an ultimate bearing strength that was 181% greater than the sample loaded with the circular plate with a diameter of 11 cm. It is clear that the samples loaded with a circular plate of varying diameters had an ultimate bearing strength that was 8.5–11% higher than the samples loaded with a square plate of varying lengths. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Advanced Concrete Materials in Construction)
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23 pages, 3433 KB  
Article
Vehicle–Bridge Interaction Characteristics for a Beam–Arch Composite Continuous Rigid-Frame Bridge
by Lingbo Wang, Yifan Li, Kang Shi, Ke Wu, Yushan Ye, Junyong Zhou, Xiliang Sun and Bing Yao
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1611; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081611 - 19 Apr 2026
Viewed by 538
Abstract
This study investigates the influence of key parameters—vehicle speed, weight, loading lane, and pavement roughness—on the Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) and ride comfort of a beam–arch composite continuous rigid-frame bridge under vehicle–bridge coupling. A six-span bridge is analyzed using a spatial beam-element model [...] Read more.
This study investigates the influence of key parameters—vehicle speed, weight, loading lane, and pavement roughness—on the Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) and ride comfort of a beam–arch composite continuous rigid-frame bridge under vehicle–bridge coupling. A six-span bridge is analyzed using a spatial beam-element model in ANSYS and a typical three-axle vehicle model is adopted to conduct the coupled dynamic response analysis. Based on the modal and structural characteristics of this bridge, key response indices are selected, including vertical displacement and bending moment at midspan, longitudinal displacement and bending moment at pier top, arch crown displacement, and tensile force in the long hanger. Control sections are identified in Span 4 (midspan, arch crown, long hanger) and at the top of Pier 16. The results demonstrate that pavement roughness significantly influences ride comfort, with the root mean square (RMS) value varying up to 107%, whereas the loading lane shows a negligible effect. Vehicle speed effects are divided into two distinct regimes: at 60 km/h and within 70–90 km/h, with dynamic responses in the higher speed range approximately 22% greater. Increasing vehicle weight raises the peak dynamic response by up to 77.68%, but does not lead to a proportional increase in DAF. Transverse loading eccentricity has a more pronounced impact on vertical bridge responses (>20% change) than on longitudinal responses (<10% change). Deterioration in pavement roughness elevates both dynamic response and DAF, with maximum increases reaching 27.97% and 28%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Buildings for Health and Comfort: Indoor Environment, Thermal Design, and Structural Integrity)
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23 pages, 6213 KB  
Article
Feedback Effects of Air-Conditioning Anthropogenic Heat on Cooling Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings: A CFD–EnergyPlus Co-Simulation Study
by Chengliang Fan, Jie Chen and Peng Yu
Buildings 2026, 16(8), 1610; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16081610 - 19 Apr 2026
Viewed by 420
Abstract
With global warming and accelerated urbanization, building air-conditioning (AC) releases more heat into the environment, exacerbating the urban heat island (UHI) effects and increasing building cooling energy consumption. Existing research has limited quantification of the impact of air-conditioning anthropogenic heat (ACAH) on the [...] Read more.
With global warming and accelerated urbanization, building air-conditioning (AC) releases more heat into the environment, exacerbating the urban heat island (UHI) effects and increasing building cooling energy consumption. Existing research has limited quantification of the impact of air-conditioning anthropogenic heat (ACAH) on the cooling energy consumption of different types. This study aims to explore the distribution characteristics of ACAH and its impact on residential building energy consumption. Firstly, typical residential buildings in the Pearl River Delta region were selected as a case study. Field experiments were conducted to measure temperature and humidity at 0.5 m, 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m from the outdoor unit, alongside ambient temperature and wind speed. Three grid densities were applied to verify the CFD model, with a prediction error of less than 0.3 °C at 0.5 m under a medium grid. The simulated temperature at 1 m from the outdoor unit under calm wind conditions was compared with field measurements to reveal the horizontal and vertical distribution characteristics of ACAH. Secondly, the effects of different building shapes, ambient temperatures, and wind speeds on the spatial distribution of ACAH were investigated. Finally, EnergyPlus (V23.1.0) was employed as the building energy simulation software, with its microclimate coupling interface implemented via Python scripts to quantify cooling energy consumption variations across different building floors under ACAH influence. Results indicated that ACAH exhibits significant horizontal non-uniformity, exerting the greatest impact within a 0.5 m radius (affected air temperature 4.3 °C higher than ambient). Vertically, localized heat accumulation occurs in the building’s central area, with air temperature 3.5 °C higher than at the bottom. Furthermore, compared to fixed meteorological conditions, the cooling energy consumption difference across floors considering ACAH reaches approximately 7.8%. This study provides accurate meteorological boundary conditions for building energy assessment and supports microclimate management in residential areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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