Bioengineering

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 143 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceEditorial

Bioengineering of the Motor System

by Carlo Albino Frigo

Bioengineering 2025, 12(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12020199 - 18 Feb 2025

Viewed by 322

Abstract

About fifty years ago, which seems very recent, new technologies for motion analysis were being developed, promising a more detailed and precise study of the human motor system [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

14 pages, 5641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Lower Limb Joint Angles Using sEMG Signals and RGB-D Camera

by Guoming Du, Zhen Ding, Hao Guo, Meichao Song and Feng Jiang

Bioengineering 2024, 11(10), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11101026 - 15 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1561

Abstract

Estimating human joint angles is a crucial task in motion analysis, gesture recognition, and motion intention prediction. This paper presents a novel model-based approach for generating reliable and accurate human joint angle estimation using a dual-branch network. The proposed network leverages combined features [...] Read more.

Estimating human joint angles is a crucial task in motion analysis, gesture recognition, and motion intention prediction. This paper presents a novel model-based approach for generating reliable and accurate human joint angle estimation using a dual-branch network. The proposed network leverages combined features derived from encoded sEMG signals and RGB-D image data. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the estimation algorithm, the proposed network employs a convolutional autoencoder to generate a high-level compression of sEMG features aimed at motion prediction. Considering the variability in the distribution of sEMG signals, the proposed network introduces a vision-based joint regression network to maintain the stability of combined features. Taking into account latency, occlusion, and shading issues with vision data acquisition, the feature fusion network utilizes high-frequency sEMG features as weights for specific features extracted from image data. The proposed method achieves effective human body joint angle estimation for motion analysis and motion intention prediction by mitigating the effects of non-stationary sEMG signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electromyography-Triggered Constraint-Induced Movement Cycling Therapy for Enhancing Motor Function in Chronic Stroke Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Jaemyoung Park, Kyeongjin Lee, Junghyun Kim and Changho Song

Bioengineering 2024, 11(9), 860; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11090860 - 23 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1213

Abstract

This single-blind randomized controlled trial investigated the effectiveness of surface electromyography (sEMG)-triggered constraint-induced movement cycling therapy (CIMCT) in improving balance, lower extremity strength, and activities of daily living in patients with chronic stroke. The participants included patients with chronic stroke-induced hemiplegia who had [...] Read more.

This single-blind randomized controlled trial investigated the effectiveness of surface electromyography (sEMG)-triggered constraint-induced movement cycling therapy (CIMCT) in improving balance, lower extremity strength, and activities of daily living in patients with chronic stroke. The participants included patients with chronic stroke-induced hemiplegia who had been diagnosed for more than 6 months, with a minimum score of 24 points on the Mini-Mental State Examination and above level 3 on the Brunnstrom stages. The trial lasted 4 weeks and participants were divided into a CIMCT group and a general cycling training (GCT) group. The CIMCT group (n = 20) used an sEMG-triggered constrained-induced movement therapy device, whereas the GCT group (n = 19) used a standard stationary bicycle. The primary outcome measures showed a significant increase in muscle strength on the affected side in the CIMCT group, as assessed by a manual muscle tester (p < 0.05), with a large effect size (d = 1.86), while no meaningful improvement was observed in the GCT group. Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in dynamic balance, as measured by the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test (p < 0.05), with the CIMCT group showing superior results compared to the GCT group, reflected by a large effect size (d = 0.96). Additionally, both groups showed significant improvements in balance as assessed by the Berg Balance Scale (BBS) and the Functional Reach Test (FRT). The CIMCT group exhibited more pronounced improvements than the GCT group, with large effect sizes of 0.83 for the BBS and 1.25 for the FRT. The secondary outcome measures revealed significant improvements in activities of daily living in both groups, as assessed by the modified Barthel index (MBI), with the CIMCT group achieving a substantial improvement (p < 0.05), accompanied by a large effect size (d = 0.87). This study concludes that sEMG-triggered CIMCT effectively improved muscle strength, postural balance, and activities of daily living in patients with chronic stroke. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Action Observation Plus Motor Imagery Administered by Immersive Virtual Reality on Hand Dexterity in Healthy Subjects

by Paola Adamo, Gianluca Longhi, Federico Temporiti, Giorgia Marino, Emilia Scalona, Maddalena Fabbri-Destro, Pietro Avanzini and Roberto Gatti

Bioengineering 2024, 11(4), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11040398 - 19 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1724

Abstract

Action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) are commonly delivered through a laptop screen. Immersive virtual reality (VR) may enhance the observer’s embodiment, a factor that may boost AOMI effects. The study aimed to investigate the effects on manual dexterity of AOMI delivered through [...] Read more.

Action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) are commonly delivered through a laptop screen. Immersive virtual reality (VR) may enhance the observer’s embodiment, a factor that may boost AOMI effects. The study aimed to investigate the effects on manual dexterity of AOMI delivered through immersive VR compared to AOMI administered through a laptop. To evaluate whether VR can enhance the effects of AOMI, forty-five young volunteers were enrolled and randomly assigned to the VR-AOMI group, who underwent AOMI through immersive VR, the AOMI group, who underwent AOMI through a laptop screen, or the control group, who observed landscape video clips. All participants underwent a 5-day treatment, consisting of 12 min per day. We investigated between and within-group differences after treatments relative to functional manual dexterity tasks using the Purdue Pegboard Test (PPT). This test included right hand (R), left hand (L), both hands (B), R + L + B, and assembly tasks. Additionally, we analyzed kinematics parameters including total and sub-phase duration, peak and mean velocity, and normalized jerk, during the Nine-Hole Peg Test to examine whether changes in functional scores may also occur through specific kinematic patterns. Participants were assessed at baseline (T0), after the first training session (T1), and at the end of training (T2). A significant time by group interaction and time effects were found for PPT, where both VR-AOMI and AOMI groups improved at the end of training. Larger PPT-L task improvements were found in the VR-AOMI group (d: 0.84, CI₉₅: 0.09–1.58) compared to the AOMI group from T0 to T1. Immersive VR used for the delivery of AOMI speeded up hand dexterity improvements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 5127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Balance Evaluation Based on Walking Experiments with Exoskeleton Interference

by Liping Wang, Xin Li, Yiying Peng, Jianda Han and Juanjuan Zhang

Bioengineering 2024, 11(4), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11040386 - 16 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1601

Abstract

The impairment of walking balance function seriously affects human health and will lead to a significantly increased risk of falling. It is important to assess and improve the walking balance of humans. However, existing evaluation methods for human walking balance are relatively subjective, [...] Read more.

The impairment of walking balance function seriously affects human health and will lead to a significantly increased risk of falling. It is important to assess and improve the walking balance of humans. However, existing evaluation methods for human walking balance are relatively subjective, and the selected metrics lack effectiveness and comprehensiveness. We present a method to construct a comprehensive evaluation index of human walking balance. We used it to generate personal and general indexes. We first pre-selected some preliminary metrics of walking balance based on theoretical analysis. Seven healthy subjects walked with exoskeleton interference on a treadmill at 1.25 m/s while their ground reaction force information and kinematic data were recorded. One subject with Charcot–Marie–Tooth walked at multiple speeds without the exoskeleton while the same data were collected. Then, we picked a number of effective evaluation metrics based on statistical analysis. We finally constructed the Walking Balance Index (WBI) by combining multiple metrics using principal component analysis. The WBI can distinguish walking balance among different subjects and gait conditions, which verifies the effectiveness of our method in evaluating human walking balance. This method can be used to evaluate and further improve the walking balance of humans in subsequent simulations and experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 2493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Current Stimulation over the Primary Motor Cortex, Cerebellum, and Spinal Cord to Modulate Balance Performance: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial

by Jitka Veldema, Teni Steingräber, Leon von Grönheim, Jana Wienecke, Rieke Regel, Thomas Schack and Christoph Schütz

Bioengineering 2024, 11(4), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11040353 - 4 Apr 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2153

Abstract

Objectives: Existing applications of non-invasive brain stimulation in the modulation of balance ability are focused on the primary motor cortex (M1). It is conceivable that other brain and spinal cord areas may be comparable or more promising targets in this regard. This study [...] Read more.

Objectives: Existing applications of non-invasive brain stimulation in the modulation of balance ability are focused on the primary motor cortex (M1). It is conceivable that other brain and spinal cord areas may be comparable or more promising targets in this regard. This study compares transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over (i) the M1, (ii) the cerebellum, and (iii) trans-spinal direct current stimulation (tsDCS) in the modulation of balance ability. Methods: Forty-two sports students were randomized in this placebo-controlled study. Twenty minutes of anodal 1.5 mA t/tsDCS over (i) the M1, (ii) the cerebellum, and (iii) the spinal cord, as well as (iv) sham tDCS were applied to each subject. The Y Balance Test, Single Leg Landing Test, and Single Leg Squat Test were performed prior to and after each intervention. Results: The Y Balance Test showed significant improvement after real stimulation of each region compared to sham stimulation. While tsDCS supported the balance ability of both legs, M1 and cerebellar tDCS supported right leg stand only. No significant differences were found in the Single Leg Landing Test and the Single Leg Squat Test. Conclusions: Our data encourage the application of DCS over the cerebellum and spinal cord (in addition to the M1 region) in supporting balance control. Future research should investigate and compare the effects of different stimulation protocols (anodal or cathodal direct current stimulation (DCS), alternating current stimulation (ACS), high-definition DCS/ACS, closed-loop ACS) over these regions in healthy people and examine the potential of these approaches in the neurorehabilitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Stroke Functional Changes: In-Depth Analysis of Clinical Tests and Motor-Cognitive Dual-Tasking Using Wearable Sensors

by Masoud Abdollahi, Ehsan Rashedi, Pranav Madhav Kuber, Sonia Jahangiri, Behnam Kazempour, Mary Dombovy and Nasibeh Azadeh-Fard

Bioengineering 2024, 11(4), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11040349 - 2 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1740

Abstract

Clinical tests like Timed Up and Go (TUG) facilitate the assessment of post-stroke mobility, but they lack detailed measures. In this study, 21 stroke survivors and 20 control participants underwent TUG, sit-to-stand (STS), and the 10 Meter Walk Test (10MWT). Tests incorporated single [...] Read more.

Clinical tests like Timed Up and Go (TUG) facilitate the assessment of post-stroke mobility, but they lack detailed measures. In this study, 21 stroke survivors and 20 control participants underwent TUG, sit-to-stand (STS), and the 10 Meter Walk Test (10MWT). Tests incorporated single tasks (STs) and motor-cognitive dual-task (DTs) involving reverse counting from 200 in decrements of 10. Eight wearable motion sensors were placed on feet, shanks, thighs, sacrum, and sternum to record kinematic data. These data were analyzed to investigate the effects of stroke and DT conditions on the extracted features across segmented portions of the tests. The findings showed that stroke survivors (SS) took 23% longer for total TUG (p < 0.001), with 31% longer turn time (p = 0.035). TUG time increased by 20% (p < 0.001) from STs to DTs. In DTs, turning time increased by 31% (p = 0.005). Specifically, SS showed 20% lower trunk angular velocity in sit-to-stand (p = 0.003), 21% longer 10-Meter Walk time (p = 0.010), and 18% slower gait speed (p = 0.012). As expected, turning was especially challenging and worsened with divided attention. The outcomes of our study demonstrate the benefits of instrumented clinical tests and DTs in effectively identifying motor deficits post-stroke across sitting, standing, walking, and turning activities, thereby indicating that quantitative motion analysis can optimize rehabilitation procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of sEMG Onset Detection Methods for Occupational Exoskeletons on Extensive Close-to-Application Data

by Stefan Kreipe, Thomas Helbig, Hartmut Witte, Nikolaus-Peter Schumann and Christoph Anders

Bioengineering 2024, 11(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11020119 - 25 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1508

Abstract

The design of human-machine interfaces of occupational exoskeletons is essential for their successful application, but at the same time demanding. In terms of information gain, biosensoric methods such as surface electromyography (sEMG) can help to achieve intuitive control of the device, for example [...] Read more.

The design of human-machine interfaces of occupational exoskeletons is essential for their successful application, but at the same time demanding. In terms of information gain, biosensoric methods such as surface electromyography (sEMG) can help to achieve intuitive control of the device, for example by reduction of the inherent time latencies of a conventional, non-biosensoric, control scheme. To assess the reliability of sEMG onset detection under close to real-life circumstances, shoulder sEMG of 55 healthy test subjects was recorded during seated free arm lifting movements based on assembly tasks. Known algorithms for sEMG onset detection are reviewed and evaluated regarding application demands. A constant false alarm rate (CFAR) double-threshold detection algorithm was implemented and tested with different features. Feature selection was done by evaluation of signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR), onset sensitivity and precision, as well as timing error and deviation. Results of visual signal inspection by sEMG experts and kinematic signals were used as references. Overall, a CFAR algorithm with Teager-Kaiser-Energy-Operator (TKEO) as feature showed the best results with feature SNR = 14.48 dB, 91% sensitivity, 93% precision. In average, sEMG analysis hinted towards impending movements 215 ms before measurable kinematic changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing RNNs for EMG Signal Classification: A Novel Strategy Using Grey Wolf Optimization

by Marcos Aviles, José Manuel Alvarez-Alvarado, Jose-Billerman Robles-Ocampo , Perla Yazmín Sevilla-Camacho and Juvenal Rodríguez-Reséndiz

Bioengineering 2024, 11(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11010077 - 13 Jan 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2133

Abstract

Accurate classification of electromyographic (EMG) signals is vital in biomedical applications. This study evaluates different architectures of recurrent neural networks for the classification of EMG signals associated with five movements of the right upper extremity. A Butterworth filter was implemented for signal preprocessing, [...] Read more.

Accurate classification of electromyographic (EMG) signals is vital in biomedical applications. This study evaluates different architectures of recurrent neural networks for the classification of EMG signals associated with five movements of the right upper extremity. A Butterworth filter was implemented for signal preprocessing, followed by segmentation into 250 ms windows, with an overlap of 190 ms. The resulting dataset was divided into training, validation, and testing subsets. The Grey Wolf Optimization algorithm was applied to the gated recurrent unit (GRU), long short-term memory (LSTM) architectures, and bidirectional recurrent neural networks. In parallel, a performance comparison with support vector machines (SVMs) was performed. The results obtained in the first experimental phase revealed that all the RNN networks evaluated reached a 100% accuracy, standing above the 93% achieved by the SVM. Regarding classification speed, LSTM ranked as the fastest architecture, recording a time of 0.12 ms, followed by GRU with 0.134 ms. Bidirectional recurrent neural networks showed a response time of 0.2 ms, while SVM had the longest time at 2.7 ms. In the second experimental phase, a slight decrease in the accuracy of the RNN models was observed, standing at 98.46% for LSTM, 96.38% for GRU, and 97.63% for the bidirectional network. The findings of this study highlight the effectiveness and speed of recurrent neural networks in the EMG signal classification task. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Walking with a Posterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: A Musculoskeletal Model Study

by Lucia Donno, Alessandro Galluzzo, Valerio Pascale, Valerio Sansone and Carlo Albino Frigo

Bioengineering 2023, 10(10), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering10101178 - 11 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2138

Abstract

The understanding of the changes induced in the knee’s kinematics by a Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL) injury is still rather incomplete. This computational study aimed to analyze how the internal loads are redistributed among the remaining ligaments when the PCL is lesioned at [...] Read more.

The understanding of the changes induced in the knee’s kinematics by a Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL) injury is still rather incomplete. This computational study aimed to analyze how the internal loads are redistributed among the remaining ligaments when the PCL is lesioned at different degrees and to understand if there is a possibility to compensate for a PCL lesion by changing the hamstring’s contraction in the second half of the swing phase. A musculoskeletal model of the knee joint was used for simulating a progressive PCL injury by gradually reducing the ligament stiffness. Then, in the model with a PCL residual stiffness at 15%, further dynamic simulations of walking were performed by progressively reducing the hamstring’s force. In each condition, the ligaments tension, contact force and knee kinematics were analyzed. In the simulated PCL-injured knee, the Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL) became the main passive stabilizer of the tibial posterior translation, with synergistic recruitment of the Lateral Collateral Ligament. This resulted in an enhancement of the tibial–femoral contact force with respect to the intact knee. The reduction in the hamstring’s force limited the tibial posterior sliding and, consequently, the tension of the ligaments compensating for PCL injury decreased, as did the tibiofemoral contact force. This study does not pretend to represent any specific population, since our musculoskeletal model represents a single subject. However, the implemented model could allow the non-invasive estimation of load redistribution in cases of PCL injury. Understanding the changes in the knee joint biomechanics could help clinicians to restore patients’ joint stability and prevent joint degeneration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

15 pages, 2088 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Psychological Nature of Female Gait Attractiveness

by Hiroko Tanabe and Kota Yamamoto

Bioengineering 2024, 11(10), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11101037 - 17 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1851

Abstract

Walking, a basic physical movement of the human body, is a resource for observers in forming interpersonal impressions. We have previously investigated the expression and perception of the attractiveness of female gaits. In this paper, drawing on our previous research, additional analysis, and [...] Read more.

Walking, a basic physical movement of the human body, is a resource for observers in forming interpersonal impressions. We have previously investigated the expression and perception of the attractiveness of female gaits. In this paper, drawing on our previous research, additional analysis, and reviewing previous studies, we seek to deepen our understanding of the function of gait attractiveness. First, we review previous research on gait as nonverbal information. Then, we show that fashion models’ gaits reflect sociocultural genderlessness, while nonmodels express reproductive-related biological attractiveness. Next, we discuss the functions of gait attractiveness based on statistical models that link gait parameters and attractiveness scores. Finally, we focus on observers’ perception of attractiveness, constructing a model of the visual information processing with respect to gait attractiveness. Overall, our results suggest that there are not only biological but also sociocultural criteria for gait attractiveness, and men and women place greater importance on the former and latter criteria, respectively, when assessing female gait attractiveness. This paper forms a major step forward in neuroaesthetics to understand the beauty of the human body and the generation of biological motions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 1289 KiB

Open AccessReview

Muscle Synergy Analysis as a Tool for Assessing the Effectiveness of Gait Rehabilitation Therapies: A Methodological Review and Perspective

by Daniele Borzelli, Cristiano De Marchis, Angelica Quercia, Paolo De Pasquale, Antonino Casile, Angelo Quartarone, Rocco Salvatore Calabrò and Andrea d’Avella

Bioengineering 2024, 11(8), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11080793 - 5 Aug 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3418

Abstract

According to the modular hypothesis for the control of movement, muscles are recruited in synergies, which capture muscle coordination in space, time, or both. In the last two decades, muscle synergy analysis has become a well-established framework in the motor control field and [...] Read more.

According to the modular hypothesis for the control of movement, muscles are recruited in synergies, which capture muscle coordination in space, time, or both. In the last two decades, muscle synergy analysis has become a well-established framework in the motor control field and for the characterization of motor impairments in neurological patients. Altered modular control during a locomotion task has been often proposed as a potential quantitative metric for characterizing pathological conditions. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review is to analyze the recent literature that used a muscle synergy analysis of neurological patients’ locomotion as an indicator of motor rehabilitation therapy effectiveness, encompassing the key methodological elements to date. Searches for the relevant literature were made in Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus. Most of the 15 full-text articles which were retrieved and included in this review identified an effect of the rehabilitation intervention on muscle synergies. However, the used experimental and methodological approaches varied across studies. Despite the scarcity of studies that investigated the effect of rehabilitation on muscle synergies, this review supports the utility of muscle synergies as a marker of the effectiveness of rehabilitative therapy and highlights the challenges and open issues that future works need to address to introduce the muscle synergies in the clinical practice and decisional process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1343 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Use of Head-Mounted Display Systems for Upper Limb Kinematic Analysis in Post-Stroke Patients: A Perspective Review on Benefits, Challenges and Other Solutions

by Paolo De Pasquale, Mirjam Bonanno, Sepehr Mojdehdehbaher, Angelo Quartarone and Rocco Salvatore Calabrò

Bioengineering 2024, 11(6), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11060538 - 24 May 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1860

Abstract

In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the clinical adoption of instrumental upper limb kinematic assessment. This trend aligns with the rising prevalence of cerebrovascular impairments, one of the most prevalent neurological disorders. Indeed, there is a growing need for [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the clinical adoption of instrumental upper limb kinematic assessment. This trend aligns with the rising prevalence of cerebrovascular impairments, one of the most prevalent neurological disorders. Indeed, there is a growing need for more objective outcomes to facilitate tailored rehabilitation interventions following stroke. Emerging technologies, like head-mounted virtual reality (HMD-VR) platforms, have responded to this demand by integrating diverse tracking methodologies. Specifically, HMD-VR technology enables the comprehensive tracking of body posture, encompassing hand position and gesture, facilitated either through specific tracker placements or via integrated cameras coupled with sophisticated computer graphics algorithms embedded within the helmet. This review aims to present the state-of-the-art applications of HMD-VR platforms for kinematic analysis of the upper limb in post-stroke patients, comparing them with conventional tracking systems. Additionally, we address the potential benefits and challenges associated with these platforms. These systems might represent a promising avenue for safe, cost-effective, and portable objective motor assessment within the field of neurorehabilitation, although other systems, including robots, should be taken into consideration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering of the Motor System)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Bioengineering of the Motor System

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (13 papers)

Editorial

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI