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Bioengineering
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Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry
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Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry

A special issue of Bioengineering (ISSN 2306-5354). This special issue belongs to the section "Nanobiotechnology and Biofabrication".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 7440

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Andreas Zenthöfer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, University Hospital Heidelberg, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
Interests: novel CAD/CAM materials; minimally invasive dental restorations; additive manufacturing; translational and interdisciplinary collaborative research
Dr. Ralf Erber

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
Interests: orthodontics; signal transduction; bone remodeling; biocompatibility; cell culture

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) have become well established methods in dentistry. While additive manufacturing (AM), particularly 3D printing, is increasingly employed for processing dental resins, restorative and advanced dental materials—such as reinforced resins, polymers, and ceramics—are still predominantly produced using subtractive techniques such as milling. However, in many cases, AM could serve as an alternative to subtractive manufacturing techniques. Among its key advantages is its capacity to accurately fabricate complex geometries without process-related deviations. Moreover, AM allows for the fabrication of thinner components, owing to the absence of tooling-induced stress that is typical in milling. In addition, the additive generation of objects facilitates the efficient use of raw materials and reduces waste. In recent years 3D printing has undergone significant advancements, particularly in conjunction with the development of advanced AM materials, which have considerably broadened the range of available technologies in clinical dentistry and their applications. Thus, the focus of this Special Issue is on developments and emerging innovations in the field of 3D-printed advanced biomaterials for dental applications. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, polymer-based materials, dental ceramics, and bone substitutes. As Guest Editors, we invite authors to submit original research articles or comprehensive reviews that align with the theme of this Special Issue. We are looking forward to receiving your valuable contributions.

Yours sincerely,

Prof. Dr. Andreas Zenthöfer
Dr. Ralf Erber
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Bioengineering is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • additive manufacturing
  • 3D printing
  • ceramics
  • polymer-based materials
  • bone substitutes

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 7509 KB  
Article
Meso-Scale Modifications in Additively Manufactured Zirconia: Topographical Design and Its Influence on Cell–Material Interactions
by Sebastian Hetzler, Stefan Rues, Andreas Zenthöfer, Peter Rammelsberg, Reinald Kühle, Christopher J. Lux, Ralf Erber and Christoph J. Roser
Bioengineering 2026, 13(5), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13050498 - 24 Apr 2026
Viewed by 701
Abstract
Additive manufacturing enables the fabrication of patient-specific zirconia devices with integrated surface features; however, the biological effects of meso-scale topographies remain insufficiently understood. This in vitro study evaluated the influence of defined meso-scale surface modifications on osteoblast behavior using Digital Light Processing (DLP)-fabricated [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing enables the fabrication of patient-specific zirconia devices with integrated surface features; however, the biological effects of meso-scale topographies remain insufficiently understood. This in vitro study evaluated the influence of defined meso-scale surface modifications on osteoblast behavior using Digital Light Processing (DLP)-fabricated 3Y tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (3Y-TZP) and 5Y partially stabilized zirconia (5Y-PSZ). Planar control specimens and surfaces incorporating regularly distributed columnar structures (height: 100 µm; width: 40 µm; center-to-center spacing: 80, 120, and 160 µm; Mod-80, Mod-120, Mod-160) were fabricated and characterized after sintering. Cytotoxicity was assessed by elution testing and showed cell viability >98% for all groups. Osteoblast adhesion and proliferation (hFOB 1.19) were quantified using metabolic assays. Meso-scale modifications significantly increased early cell adhesion compared to planar controls (p < 0.05), with the strongest effect observed for Mod-160. No significant differences in proliferation rates were detected between groups (p > 0.05). Osteogenic differentiation was evaluated by RT-qPCR (RUNX2, ALPL, COL1A1, BGLAP), revealing material- and geometry-dependent responses. On 3Y-TZP, meso-scale structures, particularly Mod-160, were associated with sustained upregulation of BGLAP, whereas 5Y-PSZ exhibited less pronounced effects. Within the limitations of this in vitro study, meso-scale surface structuring of additively manufactured zirconia enhances early osteoblast adhesion without affecting proliferation and may influence osteogenic differentiation in a material-dependent manner. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry)
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15 pages, 8328 KB  
Article
In Vitro Biofilm Formation on 3D-Printed, Milled, and Conventionally Manufactured Denture Base Resins
by Michael del Hougne, Alexander Mitzscherling, Andrea Ewald, Tatjana Schilling, Philipp Stahlhut, Uwe Gbureck and Marc Schmitter
Bioengineering 2026, 13(4), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13040424 - 3 Apr 2026
Viewed by 554
Abstract
Biofilm formation on denture base materials may contribute to oral diseases such as denture stomatitis and therefore represents an important factor in prosthodontic treatment. This in vitro study investigated biofilm formation on dental prosthetic materials manufactured by additive, subtractive, and conventional techniques. Disc-shaped [...] Read more.
Biofilm formation on denture base materials may contribute to oral diseases such as denture stomatitis and therefore represents an important factor in prosthodontic treatment. This in vitro study investigated biofilm formation on dental prosthetic materials manufactured by additive, subtractive, and conventional techniques. Disc-shaped specimens were fabricated from 3D-printed Denture Base Resin (Formlabs), milled Lucitone Digital Fit (Dentsply Sirona), and conventionally processed cold-polymerized PALAPress (Kulzer). Biofilm formation by Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis was assessed separately over a 21-day incubation period using crystal violet staining and photometric determination of optical density at eight predefined time points. Surface characteristics before and after microbial colonization were qualitatively evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. For S. mutans, significant material-dependent differences were observed only at selected time points, while overall biofilm accumulation remained low. In contrast, S. sanguinis exhibited pronounced and repeated differences, with milled PMMA generally showing lower biofilm accumulation compared with additively manufactured and conventionally processed materials. Overall, S. sanguinis formed significantly more biofilm than S. mutans across all materials and time points. These findings indicate that both manufacturing technique and bacterial species influence biofilm formation on denture base materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry)
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13 pages, 2095 KB  
Article
Accuracy and Fit of Three-Unit Dental Restorations Fabricated from 3D-Printed Resins and CAD/CAM Milling Materials: A Micro-CT Study
by Jamila Yassine, Almira Ada Diken Türksayar, Florian Beuer, Nursena Öztemel and Franziska Schmidt
Bioengineering 2026, 13(3), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13030362 - 19 Mar 2026
Viewed by 826
Abstract
(1) Purpose: To compare the fabrication accuracy, internal fit, and marginal adaptation of three-unit definitive resin fixed dental prostheses (FDPs) produced by subtractive milling and additive manufacturing. (2) Materials and Methods: A typodont mandible was prepared for a three-unit FDP, with full crown [...] Read more.
(1) Purpose: To compare the fabrication accuracy, internal fit, and marginal adaptation of three-unit definitive resin fixed dental prostheses (FDPs) produced by subtractive milling and additive manufacturing. (2) Materials and Methods: A typodont mandible was prepared for a three-unit FDP, with full crown preparations on teeth mandibular left canine and mandibular left second premolar featuring 1 mm chamfer finish lines. The FDP was designed with a 16 mm2 connector and a 100 µm cement gap. Two milling materials (Ambarino High-Class, IPS e.max CAD) and two experimental 3D printing hybrid resins (3D-1, 3D-2) were used. All restorations were scanned using an intraoral scanner and compared to the original STL using reverse engineering software for surface trueness and deviation analysis. The internal fit was evaluated using the triple-scan method, while marginal fit was assessed via micro-CT imaging. Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests (α = 0.05). (3) Results: Milled groups demonstrated a lower prevalence of external, marginal, and overall surface deviations (p < 0.001), while 3D-1 exhibited comparable deviations within the internal region with M-E (p = 0.067). Milled groups had average gap values that were similar to 3D-1 (p > 0.08), but significantly lower than 3D-2 (p < 0.002). In marginal adaptation evaluated by micro-CT, the M-A and M-E groups provided significantly lower gaps, while the 3D-1 and 3D-2 groups exhibited wider marginal and axial gaps. (4) Conclusions: These results indicate that while milling remains a more reliable manufacturing method for achieving external and marginal precision, position 3D-1 is a compelling, chairside alternative to milling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry)
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16 pages, 1332 KB  
Article
Influence of Water Storage on the Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Aligners: An In Vitro Study
by Kathrin Puchert, Paul Ritzert, Sebastian Wille, Jusef Naim and Sinan Şen
Bioengineering 2026, 13(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13010021 - 26 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 818
Abstract
Directly printed aligners represent a promising alternative to conventional thermoformed aligners. The aim of this in vitro study was to compare the effects of water on the mechanical properties of directly printed aligners with those of conventionally manufactured thermoformed PET-G foils. Dental LT [...] Read more.
Directly printed aligners represent a promising alternative to conventional thermoformed aligners. The aim of this in vitro study was to compare the effects of water on the mechanical properties of directly printed aligners with those of conventionally manufactured thermoformed PET-G foils. Dental LT Clear V2 (LT), V Print Splint Comfort (VP), and TC-85 DAC (TC) were examined. Biolon (BL), a conventional PET-G material, served as the thermoplastic reference material. All samples were tested before and after 14 days of water storage at 37 °C. We performed a three-point bending test and an indentation test, and examined changes in the abrasion resistance and hygroscopic volume. The resistance of all printed specimens decreased significantly after water storage. VP and TC were less resilient than BL overall. LT and BL exhibited the lowest indentation creep (BL: 0.08 ± 0.01, LT: 0.13 ± 0.02, VP: 0.21 ± 0.02, TC: 0.24 ± 0.02). Furthermore, the abrasion of LT (0.72 ± 0.21 mm3) was significantly lower than that of BL (1.12 ± 0.37 mm3). In conclusion, the water sorption of the printed test specimens had a significant influence on the mechanical properties, with a reduction in the flexural modulus, Martens hardness, and plastic hardness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry)
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16 pages, 5621 KB  
Article
Optimized 3D-Printed Polylactic Acid/Graphene Oxide Scaffolds for Enhanced Bone Regeneration
by Jung-Tae Lee, Dajung Lee, Ye-Seul Jung, Sung-Ho Lee, Sungtae Kim, Bongju Kim and Dong-Wook Han
Bioengineering 2025, 12(11), 1192; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12111192 - 1 Nov 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3996
Abstract
Background: Three-dimensional (3D) printed scaffolds have emerged as promising tools for bone regeneration, but the optimal structural design and pore size remain unclear. Polylactic acid (PLA) reinforced with graphene oxide (GO) offers enhanced mechanical and biological performance, yet systematic evaluation of architecture and [...] Read more.
Background: Three-dimensional (3D) printed scaffolds have emerged as promising tools for bone regeneration, but the optimal structural design and pore size remain unclear. Polylactic acid (PLA) reinforced with graphene oxide (GO) offers enhanced mechanical and biological performance, yet systematic evaluation of architecture and pore size is limited. Methods: Two scaffold architectures (lattice-type and dode-type) with multiple pore sizes were fabricated using UV-curable PLA/GO resin. Physical accuracy, porosity, and mechanical properties were assessed through compression and fatigue testing. Based on in vitro screening, four pore sizes (930 μm, 690 μm, 558 μm, 562 μm) within the dode-type structure were analyzed. The 558 μm and 562 μm scaffolds, showing distinct fracture thresholds, were further evaluated in rat and rabbit calvarial defect models for inflammation and bone regeneration. Results: In vitro testing revealed that while 930 μm and 690 μm scaffolds exhibited superior compressive strength, the 562 μm scaffold showed a unique critical fracture behavior, and the 558 μm scaffold offered comparable stability with higher resistance to premature failure. In vivo studies confirmed excellent biocompatibility in both groups, with early bone formation favored in the 558 μm scaffold and more continuous and mature bone observed in the 562 μm scaffold at later stages. Conclusions: This stepwise strategy—from structural design to pore size screening and preclinical validation—demonstrates that threshold-level mechanical properties can influence osteogenesis. PLA/GO scaffolds optimized at 558 μm and 562 μm provide a translationally relevant balance between mechanical stability and biological performance for bone tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D-Printed Biomaterials in Dentistry)
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