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Behavioral Sciences
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Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior
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Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior

A special issue of Behavioral Sciences (ISSN 2076-328X). This special issue belongs to the section "Experimental and Clinical Neurosciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 28 November 2025 | Viewed by 6756

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Mark Reybrouck

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Guest Editor
1. Musicology Research Group, Faculty of Arts, KU Leuven-University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
2. Department of Art History, Musicology and Theatre Studies, IPEM, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: music psychology; musical sense-making; musical epistemology; neurobiological grounding of music listening; music and brain studies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Piotr Podlipniak

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Musicology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 61-712 Poznan, Poland
Interests: evolution of musicality; psychology of music; biomusiclogy; meaning in music; coevolution of speech and music; pitch perception
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. David Welch

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Guest Editor
Audiology Section, School of Population Health, University of Auckland, Auckland 2011, New Zealand
Interests: noise; hearing; hearing loss; noise-induced hearing loss; auditory neurophysiology; psychoacoustics; soundscape; health promotion
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Music listening is an exploratory activity that involves perception, affect and cognition. As a time-oriented process, it relies on attention, memory, and expectation. It can be seen as an affordance-laden structure that invites listeners to create meaning for themselves by “coping” with the sounds. Coping, as a survival mechanism, entails cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific internal and/or external demands on the resources of an individual. Applied to music, this means that listeners may search for stimuli that possess benefits, resulting in the management and regulation of attention and arousal, as well as optimal homeostatic regulation.

The aim of this Special Issue is to broaden the scope of music listening to embrace the larger sonic world. Music, from this perspective, is considered as a sound environment, and listening as a process of exploration of this environment. It is an approach that conceives of music as both structured by the composer and musicians, and taking on an idiosyncratic structure imposed by the exploratory behavior of each individual listener. This exploratory behavior proceeds in real-time and can be seen as an epistemic tool for the understanding of music, with a major emphasis on active search rather than passive listening. Several mechanisms are involved in this process, such as the dynamics of attention and knowledge construction, both at the level of sensory information processing, emotional bodily resonance, and higher-level cognitive elaboration.

Prof. Dr. Mark Reybrouck
Prof. Dr. Piotr Podlipniak
Dr. David Welch
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Behavioral Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • music as a sound environment
  • music as soundscape
  • exploratory behavior as a cognitive category
  • broad-and-build theory: broadening the behavioral and cognitive repertoire
  • music perception and attentional dynamics
  • skillful coping with sounds
  • musical affordances
  • exploratory listening and homeostatic regulation
  • music knowledge acquisition
  • musical improvisation as exploratory behavior
  • musicality as an evolutionary achievement
  • discovery learning

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 1466 KiB  
Article
A Causal Model for Surveys of Exploratory Listening and Music Appreciation
by Henk Jacobs, Marc Leman and Edith Van Dyck
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 676; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050676 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 202
Abstract
This paper integrates concepts from neurobiology, marketing and musicology to propose a causal model of music appreciation and exploratory listening, using directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) and structural equation models (SEMs). The key concepts are music appreciation (measured on a scale from 1 to [...] Read more.
This paper integrates concepts from neurobiology, marketing and musicology to propose a causal model of music appreciation and exploratory listening, using directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) and structural equation models (SEMs). The key concepts are music appreciation (measured on a scale from 1 to 10), evaluations, experiences and the qualities of musical features, which the listeners explore and describe from a first-person perspective. The qualities are understood in terms of a satisfaction or dissatisfaction rating of operational features. The development of the causal model is based on a reiterative methodology involving surveys. Applying the causal model to a large survey of 800 listeners reveals that listeners adopt a slightly different causal pathway for their appreciation of liked versus disliked music. When listeners dislike music, the source of their dissatisfaction is more consistently attributed to the perceived or missed musical qualities rather than to their personal experiences. The iterative methodology and causal modeling offer a foundation for further investigation and refinement in various listening contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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14 pages, 2955 KiB  
Article
From Game to Concert: Exploratory Listening in ‘Stardew Valley: Festival of Seasons’ Concert Tour
by Natalie P. Miller and Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050667 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 251
Abstract
Exploratory listening encompasses the various ways, contexts, and levels of attention with which listeners engage with their sonic environment. This paper presents findings from qualitative research conducted with audience members during the Stardew Valley: Festival of Seasons concert tour. During these events, attendees [...] Read more.
Exploratory listening encompasses the various ways, contexts, and levels of attention with which listeners engage with their sonic environment. This paper presents findings from qualitative research conducted with audience members during the Stardew Valley: Festival of Seasons concert tour. During these events, attendees encountered music from the widely successful indie video game, reorchestrated in a new context. Just as the game encourages exploration through open-ended gameplay, the concerts prompt listeners to explore how the rearranged music refers to and diverges from its use in the game. Findings suggest that attendees deployed their attention to divergent aspects of the music. While some attendees focused on specific musical aspects like recognizable melodies and instrumentation, others focused on the broader audiovisual and community aspects of the performance. Results also indicate that highly immersed listeners experience diverse thoughts, including those not directly about the immediate musical content. Positioning music-evoked imaginings as a way listeners become immersed in musical experiences, we report on how exploratory listening shapes the dynamics of attention, immersion, and enjoyment within musical and audiovisual contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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23 pages, 970 KiB  
Article
Meaning in Music Framed: The Four ‘Eff’ Processes (Fit, Affiliation, Facilitation, and Fluency)
by Emery Schubert and Anthony Chmiel
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 546; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040546 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 443
Abstract
Music can evoke powerful, positive, and meaningful experiences, but how does its potential to evoke such experiences come about? Listening to the music itself is critical, but referents (the thoughts, ideas, events, and affects associated with the music) are also relevant. We found [...] Read more.
Music can evoke powerful, positive, and meaningful experiences, but how does its potential to evoke such experiences come about? Listening to the music itself is critical, but referents (the thoughts, ideas, events, and affects associated with the music) are also relevant. We found a lack of understanding in the literature regarding the processes through which music evokes meaning through referents. To address this lacuna, we built on modern conceptions of framing theory. The following four framing processes were proposed, with each acting on different time scales (shortest [S] to longest [L]), and with an increasingly top-down [T] influence: (1) fluency [S]—the ease with which the accompanying information (about the music) can be mentally processed, with easy-to-process material leading to ‘increased preference/positive evaluation of the music’ [IPPE]; (2) facilitation—the content of the messaging directly influences IPPE, for example, when referring to the beauty of the music or the talent of the composer; (3) affiliation—when social influences imbue the music with meaning; and (4) fit [L, T]—when the other processes lead to long-term personal and cultural IPPE through norms and habits. Together, these processes can be applied to provide a comprehensive account of how musical meaning and preferences are developed. Three case studies show how these processes can be applied to the extant literature: why negatively framed music only has a relatively small (negative) impact on IPPE; why adding crowd sounds to recorded music only has a small effect; and how ‘labels’ such as Beethoven and Mozart become established and then impose top-down influence on music’s meaning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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38 pages, 10305 KiB  
Article
Listening Beyond the Source: Exploring the Descriptive Language of Musical Sounds
by Isabel Pires
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030396 - 20 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1001
Abstract
The spontaneous use of verbal expressions to articulate and describe abstract auditory phenomena in everyday interactions is an inherent aspect of human nature. This occurs without the structured conditions typically required in controlled laboratory environments, relying instead on intuitive and spontaneous modes of [...] Read more.
The spontaneous use of verbal expressions to articulate and describe abstract auditory phenomena in everyday interactions is an inherent aspect of human nature. This occurs without the structured conditions typically required in controlled laboratory environments, relying instead on intuitive and spontaneous modes of expression. This study explores the relationship between auditory perception and descriptive language for abstract sounds. These sounds, synthesized without identifiable sources or musical structures, allow listeners to engage with sound perception free from external references. The investigation of correlations between subjective descriptors (e.g., “rough”, “bright”) and physical sound attributes (e.g., spectral and dynamic properties) reveals significant cross-modal linguistic associations in auditory perception. An international survey with a diverse group of participants revealed that listeners often draw on other sensory domains to describe sounds, suggesting a robust cross-modal basis for auditory descriptors. Moreover, the findings indicate a correlation between subjective descriptors and objective sound wave properties, demonstrating the effectiveness of abstract sounds in guiding listeners’ attention to intrinsic qualities. These results could support the development of new paradigms in sound analysis and manipulation, with applications in artistic, educational, and analytical contexts. This multidisciplinary approach may provide the foundation for a perceptual framework for sound analysis, to be tested and refined through theoretical modelling and experimental validation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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12 pages, 838 KiB  
Article
Curiosity and Mind Wandering During Music Listening Are Negatively Correlated
by Juan Felipe Pérez Ariza and Diana Omigie
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030393 - 20 Mar 2025
Viewed by 478
Abstract
Curiosity, a crucial trigger of exploration and learning, has been described as the antithesis of mind wandering, a state of non-engagement with the external environment or a given task. Findings have confirmed that music’s structure influences levels of curiosity in listeners as they [...] Read more.
Curiosity, a crucial trigger of exploration and learning, has been described as the antithesis of mind wandering, a state of non-engagement with the external environment or a given task. Findings have confirmed that music’s structure influences levels of curiosity in listeners as they listen and, as such, suggests that this context could be useful in examining the relationship between curiosity and mind wandering. Here, participants were exposed to extended melodies twice, during which they carried out two counterbalanced tasks: one requiring them, whenever probed, to indicate whether they had been mind wandering at that moment and the other requiring them to indicate, when probed, how curious they were feeling about the music at that moment. Critically, participants were probed at the exact same moments in the music when completing the two tasks, allowing the relationship between curiosity and mind wandering to be examined. Results confirmed our prediction of a negative relationship between curiosity and mind wandering, while exploratory analysis further suggested an influence of expertise and the music’s information dynamics on patterns of mind wandering. We discuss the implications of our study for understanding music as an exploration-affording sound environment and outline directions for future work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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15 pages, 1733 KiB  
Article
Nuances of an In-Between Space of Learning Through Auditory Approaches in Early Piano Instruction
by Samuel E. Pang and Rebecca Y. P. Kan
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121128 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1148
Abstract
Musical experiences in early piano instruction tend to be led by visual-based methods, limiting opportunities to develop aural abilities for children to understand music. This study examines the exploratory behaviour of music listening through auditory approaches that support visual-based methods to foster musical [...] Read more.
Musical experiences in early piano instruction tend to be led by visual-based methods, limiting opportunities to develop aural abilities for children to understand music. This study examines the exploratory behaviour of music listening through auditory approaches that support visual-based methods to foster musical comprehension. Drawing from case studies of young music learners between the ages of 7 and 8, qualitative data were collected through lesson observations, interviews, game-based assessments, and performance evaluations of a prepared piece. Positive instances of recall, calibration, association, and empowerment indicated how participants perceived and strengthened the association of heard sounds. The findings further highlight the demanding cognitive ability needed to process visual elements in method books and how auditory approaches can relieve the attention to visual score-reading that enables students to better tune in to the coordination of hands with music. This discussion therefore opens the possibility for exploring how we may uncover nuanced differences in learning when we design teaching methods that straddle both auditory and visual approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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Review

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24 pages, 1111 KiB  
Review
Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior: From Dispositional Reactions to Epistemic Interactions with the Sonic World
by Mark Reybrouck, Piotr Podlipniak and David Welch
Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090825 - 16 Sep 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1970
Abstract
Listening to music can span a continuum from passive consumption to active exploration, relying on processes of coping with the sounds as well as higher-level processes of sense-making. Revolving around the major questions of “what” and “how” to explore, this paper takes a [...] Read more.
Listening to music can span a continuum from passive consumption to active exploration, relying on processes of coping with the sounds as well as higher-level processes of sense-making. Revolving around the major questions of “what” and “how” to explore, this paper takes a naturalistic stance toward music listening, providing tools to objectively describe the underlying mechanisms of musical sense-making by weakening the distinction between music and non-music. Starting from a non-exclusionary conception of “coping” with the sounds, it stresses the exploratory approach of treating music as a sound environment to be discovered by an attentive listener. Exploratory listening, in this view, is an open-minded and active process, not dependent on simply recalling pre-existing knowledge or information that reduces cognitive processing efforts but having a high cognitive load due to the need for highly focused attention and perceptual readiness. Music, explored in this way, is valued for its complexity, surprisingness, novelty, incongruity, puzzlingness, and patterns, relying on processes of selection, differentiation, discrimination, and identification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Music Listening as Exploratory Behavior)
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