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Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical and Molecular Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2025 | Viewed by 14571

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Dr. Ronald A. Glabonjat

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
2. NIEHS Center for Environmental Health and Justice in Northern Manhattan, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
Interests: environmental health; exposure science; environmental chemicals; molecular mechanisms; intervention and disease prevention; metallomics; metabolomics; epidemiology; sample preparation; high-performance liquid chromatography; spectrometry; mass spectrometry; analytical method development; chromatography; liquid chromatography; analytical chemistry instrumentation; extraction; chemical analysis; speciation analysis; environmental bio-geochemical arsenic cycling; bio-accumulation; bio-magnification
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleague,

In an era where the intricate interplay between human health and the environment takes center stage, our understanding of the Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals becomes paramount. This call for submissions invites scientists and researchers from diverse disciplines to contribute their groundbreaking work to a Special Issue dedicated to unraveling the complexities of this critical field.

The scope of this Special Issue spans a wide array of topics, ranging from innovative methodologies for assessing environmental chemical exposure to the latest advancements in deciphering the intricate mechanisms underlying the resultant health effects. We seek contributions that explore the exposure pathways of a myriad of environmental chemicals, including, but not limited to, pollutants, pesticides, metals, and emerging contaminants, as well as their potential impacts on human health.

Emphasizing a multidisciplinary approach, we encourage submissions that employ cutting-edge techniques in analytical chemistry, toxicology, epidemiology, and environmental sciences to elucidate the dynamic relationship between exposure to environmental chemicals and the subsequent health outcomes. Our goal is to foster a comprehensive dialogue that transcends traditional disciplinary boundaries, providing a holistic understanding of the challenges posed by environmental chemicals on human wellbeing.

Accepted submissions will contribute to the growing body of knowledge essential for informing public health policies, regulatory frameworks, and intervention strategies. We aim to create a compendium of research that not only addresses the current gaps in our knowledge but also paves the way for future investigations in this rapidly evolving field.

Researchers, scholars, and practitioners are invited to submit their original contributions to this Special Issue, with the assurance that their work will be rigorously reviewed by experts in the field. Join us in this collaborative effort to advance our understanding of Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals and contribute to the collective pursuit of safeguarding human health in an ever-changing environment.

Dr. Ronald A. Glabonjat
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

environmental chemicals
exposure pathways
health effects
multidisciplinary approach
analytical chemistry
toxicology
epidemiology
emerging contaminants
public health policies
regulatory frameworks

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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27 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Water Contaminants (Metals, Nutrients, Pharmaceutics, Endocrine Disruptors, Bacteria) in the Danube River and Black Sea Basins, SE Romania

by Antoaneta Ene, Liliana Teodorof, Carmen Lidia Chiţescu, Adrian Burada, Cristina Despina, Gabriela Elena Bahrim, Aida Mihaela Vasile, Daniela Seceleanu-Odor and Elena Enachi

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 5009; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15095009 (registering DOI) - 30 Apr 2025

Abstract

The assessment of surface water quality of the Danube River and Black Sea was performed taking into account the amounts determined for heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn), nutrients (compounds of N and P, chlorophyll a), emerging contaminants (CECs) (pharmaceutics and endocrine disruptors—19 quantified compounds, out of 30 targeted chemicals), heterotrophic bacteria and total coliforms, in thirty-two locations from the lower Danube sector (starting with km 375 up to the river mouths), the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (three Danube branches—Chilia, Sulina, and Sf. Gheorghe) and the Romanian coastal area of the Black Sea. The heavy metals levels were found in the following ranges: 3.0–6.5 μg/L As; 0.51–1.32 μg/L Cd; 21.6–61.2 μg/L Cr; 10.2–28.6 μg/L Cu; 196–351 μg/L Mn; 12.3–47.67 μg/L Ni; 5.2–15.5 μg/L Pb; 44–74 μg/L Zn; 0.01–0.08 μg/L Hg. The nutrient concentrations vary in the intervals: 0.04–0.45 mg/L N-NH₄; 0.01–0.06 mg/L N-NO₂; 0.07–1.9 mg/L N-NO₃; 1.0–3.2 mg/L N total; 0.01–0.05 mg/L P-PO₄; 0.02–0.27 mg/L P total, and 0.8–17.3 μg/L chlorophyll a. The concentrations of CECs from various classes (sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, flumequine, amoxicillin, cefuroxime, dicloxacillin, carbamazepine, pravastatin, erythromycin, piroxicam, ketoprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, enilconazole (imazalil), clotrimazole, drospirenone, 17α-ethinylestradiol, and bisphenol A) were compared with values reported for European rivers and the Danube River water in various river sectors. The highest detection frequencies were registered for bisphenol A (100%), sulfamethoxazole (96%), carbamazepine and diclofenac (87%), trimethoprim (78%), pravastatin (46%), and imazalil (34%). Bisphenol A exhibited the largest concentrations (342 ng/L), followed by diclofenac (132 ng/L), carbamazepine (38 ng/L), and sulfamethoxazole (36 ng/L). For most of the contaminants, Black Sea coastal water showed lower concentrations than the Danube water and good ecological status for surface water. Correlations between CECs and total coliforms suggest insufficient treated wastewater effluents as a common contamination source and possible use of CECs as indirect fecal pollution indicator in aquatic systems. This is the first study carried out in the connected system Danube River–Danube Delta–Black Sea for a large palette of toxicants classes and microbial pollutants, which will serve as a baseline for future monitoring of water quality in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

20 pages, 892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Pollution Levels and Heavy Metal Contamination in the Jukskei River, South Africa

by Nehemiah Mukwevho, Mothepane H. Mabowa, Napo Ntsasa, Andile Mkhohlakali, Luke Chimuka, James Tshilongo and Mokgehle R. Letsoalo

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3117; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063117 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1249

Abstract

Monitoring river systems is crucial for understanding and managing water resources, predicting natural disasters, and maintaining ecological balance. Assessment of heavy metal pollution derived valuable data which are critical for the environmental management and regulatory compliance of the Jukskei River. Heavy elements were evaluated in the Jukskei River for seasonal impact, potential health risks, and contamination level with concentration levels ranging from 6900 mg/kg iron (Fe) to 0.85 mg/kg cadmium (Cd) in the dry sampling season and 6900 mg/kg Fe to 0.26 mg/kg Cd in the wet season. Enrichment factor analysis indicated high contamination levels of Fe and Pb in both dry and wet seasons. Moreover, pollution indicators revealed extremely high contamination of geo-accumulation and enrichment factors in the downstream to upstream in both seasons with a mild contamination factor for mercury (Hg). Principal Component Analysis revealed anthropogenic sources of arsenic (As), Cd, and Pb due to wastewater and agricultural pesticide application while Thorium (Th), uranium (U) and Hg were attributed as a results of gold mining activities. ANOVA and Pearson correlation analysis showed a high and moderate link between As–Pb, Cd–Pd, and As–Hg, which are significantly correlated. The potential ecological risk index assessment revealed a significant impact of heavy metals on the freshwater ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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14 pages, 1306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Honeybee Bioaccumulation as a Tool for Assessing the Environmental Quality of an Area Affected by the Activity of a Municipal Waste Sorting Facility (Central Italy)

by Matteo Pallottini, Enzo Goretti, Tiziano Gardi, Marco Petrarchini, Aron Pazzaglia, Beatrice Castellani, Federica Bruschi, Chiara Petroselli, Roberta Selvaggi and David Cappelletti

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1658; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031658 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 568

Abstract

The management of municipal solid waste presents a significant challenge for cities. Facilities dedicated to sorting, treating, and recycling waste (including plastic, glass, metals, aluminium, and wood) play a crucial environmental role in urban areas, contributing to sustainable development. Since combustion processes are not involved, any potential chemical impact of the facility on the surrounding area are likely to result from the emissions of metals and metalloids. In this study, the bioaccumulation of Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn in the tissues of honeybees (Apis mellifera ligustica) was employed as a reference to assess the environmental quality of the area near a municipal waste sorting and storage facility located in Ponte Rio, Perugia (Umbria, Central Italy), which serves as the case study here. No higher contamination levels were found in the facility area compared to the suburban territory of Perugia, where the bioaccumulation levels of these elements in honeybees frequently exhibited higher values. The application of the Honeybee Contamination Index (HCI) confirmed these results. Therefore, the operation of this waste sorting facility is sustainable concerning environmental contamination by chemicals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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19 pages, 2945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Health Risks from Agricultural Soils Contaminated with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Across Different Land-Use Categories of Bangladesh

by Sumaya Sharmin, Qingyue Wang, Md. Rezwanul Islam, Weiqian Wang, Yanyan Wang, Christian Ebere Enyoh and Md. Sohel Rana

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15010056 - 25 Dec 2024

Viewed by 816

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a matter of deep concern as they pose significant environmental and health hazards due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxic effects. In soils, PAHs accumulate, contaminating ecosystems, entering food chains, and posing threats to plant and human health. This study conducted a comprehensive assessment of PAH contamination in agricultural soils (particle size < 20 µm) across various land-use categories and depths to determine contamination levels and associated health risks, as such comprehensive studies are very rare in Bangladesh. Soil samples were investigated using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The findings revealed that the concentrations of ∑16PAH ranged from 299 to 1928 µg/kg, with the lowest levels observed in research areas and the highest in industrial soils. Concentration trends were as follows: industrial areas > coastal areas > local market areas > rural areas > research areas. Higher concentrations were noted for individual PAHs such as Nap, Phe, BbF, and BkF (313.14 µg/kg ± 62.01 to 546.97 µg/kg ± 146.76), while the lowest concentrations were recorded for BghiP, DBahA, and Ind (1.25 µg/kg ± 1.10 to 5.74 µg/kg ± 3.77). PAH levels were highest in surface soils, following a depth sequence of 0–5 cm > 5–10 cm > 10–15cm. The results also showed that low-, intermediate-, and high-molecular-weight PAHs comprised 46.06–83.18%, 16.47–48.68%, and 0.23–6.51% of total PAHs, respectively. The source of PAHs was identified as integration of pyrogenic petrogenic. Children were found to have higher exposure through ingestion compared to adults, with lower exposure through inhalation and dermal pathways. The total incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for children ranged from 2.03 × 10⁻⁸ to 9.07 × 10⁻⁷, and for adults from 1.96 × 10⁻⁸ to 8.04 × 10⁻⁷. Both groups exhibited no carcinogenic risk, as per the USEPA threshold. These findings underscore the need for ongoing monitoring and management strategies to mitigate PAH contamination in agricultural soils, thus protecting environmental and public health concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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14 pages, 535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Substance Exposure of Some Cleaning Workers in Korea: Focusing on Inhalation Exposure

by Nosung Ki, Saemi Shin, Jihyung Choi, Sanghyo Shim and Sanghoon Byeon

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7533; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177533 - 26 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1617

Abstract

This study aimed to prevent health damage caused by chemical exposure among cleaning workers who use cleaning agents and disinfectants in facility management and kitchen areas. We analyzed 5 years of measurement data (2016–2020) for cleaning workers across various industries in Korea, and conducted an exposure survey and health risk assessment for the two most frequently measured substances (i.e., 2-butoxyethanol and sodium hydroxide) and representative substances generated by their combined use (i.e., chlorine and chloroform). The findings indicate that when chlorine was generated by mixing hypochlorite-based disinfectants (e.g., bleach) with acidic cleaners containing substances such as nitric, hydrochloric, or citric acid, the risk index for chlorine gas (based on the 95th percentile exposure values) was 5.65 in the facility management cleaning industry, exceeding the acceptable threshold of 1. Because of the high usage and exposure frequency of cleaning and disinfecting agents and the common practice of mixing multiple products to enhance cleaning efficacy, it is necessary to manage hazardous risk factors by providing education on appropriate working methods, supplying personal protective equipment, and installing ventilation systems for these workers. Further research on the health risk assessment of combined chemical use is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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14 pages, 720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occupational Inhalation Health Risk Assessment of TCE Exposure in the Korean Manufacturing Industry

by Sueji Seo, Saemi Shin and Sanghoon Byeon

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(13), 5510; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135510 - 25 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1779

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the health risks to workers in the Korean manufacturing industries using trichloroethylene (TCE). In Republic of Korea, TCE has permissible exposure limits. In 2014, the permissible exposure limits were exceeded in two cases, necessitating a health risk assessment. The exposure value of TCE in the workplace was determined using Korea’s Workplace Environmental Monitoring Program (WEMP), and risk assessment was performed by applying a probabilistic distribution using a Monte Carlo simulation. When evaluating non-carcinogenic risks at the 50th percentile, all 20 industries had acceptable risk, and at the 95th percentile, 12 of the 20 industries had unacceptable risk. Following the cancer risk assessment, 17 out of 20 industries had unacceptable risks, and the 95th percentile of all industries had unacceptable risks. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks of TCE were highest during metal fabrication. Based on these results, metal fabrication was chosen as an industry that should receive management priority in Korea. The findings of this study serve as a foundation for managing TCE among manufacturing workers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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Review

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30 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessReview

Maternal–Foetal Effects of Exposure to Bisphenol A: Outcomes and Long-Term Consequences

by Henrique Eloi Costa, Ines Medeiros, Melissa Mariana and Elisa Cairrao

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020697 - 12 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1858

Abstract

Exposure to bisphenol A (BPA), one of the most widely produced plasticisers, can have a major effect on the growing embryo and the mother during pregnancy; as this is the most vulnerable period, the cutoff established in the legislation does not take this factor into account. Thus, this narrative review aims to highlight the consequences for the foetus and the pregnant woman of maternal and foetal exposure to BPA by analysing epidemiological and experimental studies on humans. Extensive research has examined the effects of BPA on several systems outcomes. Specifically, BPA exposure affects the immune system of the offspring and promotes the development of respiratory diseases, including asthma and wheezing. Moreover, BPA has been negatively associated with children’s neurodevelopment, leading to behavioural changes; autism; and reproductive changes, mainly deviations in anogenital distance, sexual hormone levels and sexual maturation, which can result in infertility. Furthermore, in mothers, BPA exposure may be linked to pre-eclampsia and gestational diabetes mellitus and affects birth parameters, leading to a higher risk of preterm delivery, shorter birth lengths and lower birth weights, although the results were not always consistent. These results demonstrate the urgent need for stricter legislation banning the use of BPA during pregnancy to reduce the hazards to the health and development of the foetus and the unborn child. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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18 pages, 271 KiB

Open AccessReview

Proposal to Reclassify SCCPs Under International Regulations on Ship Recycling to Enhance Environmental and Human Health Protection

by Jelena Čulin

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15010104 - 26 Dec 2024

Viewed by 809

Abstract

Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that have been detected in various human tissues and organs. Based on the results of numerous studies indicating that exposure to environmentally relevant doses could induce harm to humans and animals, they have been listed in Annex A (Elimination) of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. They are also listed as hazardous materials likely to lead to significant adverse effects on human health or the environment by the International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships (Hong Kong Convention) and the EU Ship Recycling Regulation (EU SRR). This paper analyzes recent literature on the environmental and human health impacts of SCCPs and the actual practice of shipbreaking to demonstrate that the current treatment of SCCPs under these two regulations does not provide sufficient protection for human health and the environment. Based on the presented data, it is proposed that SCCPs should be reclassified as materials whose installation or use is prohibited in shipyards, ship repair yards, and ships by the EU SRR and the Hong Kong Convention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

16 pages, 1005 KiB

Open AccessReview

Treatment Trends and Hybrid Methods for the Removal of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances from Water—A Review

by Paripurnanda Loganathan, Jaya Kandasamy, Harsha Ratnaweera and Saravanamuthu Vigneswaran

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 2574; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062574 - 19 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4528

Abstract

Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) encompass a diverse group of engineered chemicals extensively manufactured and utilized in various facets of human life. They exhibit widespread distribution in aquatic environments due to their prevalent usage and resistance to degradation. Recognized for their toxicity to both humans and animals and a major public health concern, various techniques have been employed to eliminate them from water sources. However, these methods have shown limitations in efficiently and cost-effectively removing PFASs, particularly in the presence of other water contaminants, which are often present at much higher concentrations than PFASs. This review critically discusses these methods, presenting their respective advantages and limitations. This review illustrates that, rather than solely depending on individual methods as often presented in previous reviews, a combination of techniques has shown greater effectiveness in PFAS removal, owing to their synergistic effects. Hybrid methods capable of practical integration for efficient PFAS removal include adsorption coupled with oxidation, membrane separation combined with oxidation, and the integration of adsorption with membrane separation and incineration. In these hybrid approaches, one technique extracts PFASs from contaminated water and concentrates them, while the other degrades the extracted PFASs. The review presents strategies to enhance the performance of these hybrid methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of Environmental Chemicals)

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