Applied Sciences

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23 pages, 5099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Optimal Control Strategy of Four Drive Motors for an Electric Vehicle

by Chien-Hsun Wu, Wei-Zhe Gao and Jie-Ming Yang

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3505; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073505 - 23 Mar 2025

Viewed by 354

Based on the mobility requirements of electric vehicles, four-wheel drive (4WD) can significantly enhance driving capability and increase operational flexibility in handling. If the output of different drive motors can be effectively controlled, energy losses during the distribution process can be reduced, thereby [...] Read more.

Based on the mobility requirements of electric vehicles, four-wheel drive (4WD) can significantly enhance driving capability and increase operational flexibility in handling. If the output of different drive motors can be effectively controlled, energy losses during the distribution process can be reduced, thereby greatly improving overall efficiency. This study presents a simulation platform for an electric vehicle with four motors as power sources. This platform also consists of the driving cycle, driver, lithium-ion battery, vehicle dynamics, and energy management system models. Two rapid-prototyping controllers integrated with the required circuit to process analog-to-digital signal conversion for input and output are utilized to carry out a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation. The driving cycle, called NEDC (New European Driving Cycle), and FTP-75 (Federal Test Procedure 75) are used for evaluating the performance characteristics and response relationship among subsystems. A control strategy, called ECMS (Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy), is simulated and compared with the four-wheel average torque mode. The ECMS method considers different demanded powers and motor speeds, evaluating various drive motor power distribution combinations to search for motor power consumption and find the minimum value. As a result, it can identify the global optimal solution. Simulation results indicate that, compared to the average torque mode and rule-based control, in the pure simulation environment and HIL simulation during the UDDS driving cycle, the maximum improvement rates for pure electric energy efficiency for the 45 kW and 95 kW power systems are 6.1% and 6.0%, respectively. In the HIL simulation during the FTP-75 driving cycle, the maximum improvement rates for pure electric energy efficiency for the 45 kW and 95 kW power systems are 5.1% and 4.8%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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20 pages, 3099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Battery Electrical Vehicles and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles–Greenhouse Gas Emission Life Cycle Assessment

by Vasco Vieira, Andresa Baptista, Adélio Cavadas, Gustavo F. Pinto, Joaquim Monteiro and Leonardo Ribeiro

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3122; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063122 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1573

Abstract

Battery electrical vehicle (BEV) ownership has increased in recent years. There is a general concern over the life cycle of the batteries used in such vehicles. This study provides a comprehensive overview of electric vehicles, encompassing their technical evolution, autonomy, and ownership. The [...] Read more.

Battery electrical vehicle (BEV) ownership has increased in recent years. There is a general concern over the life cycle of the batteries used in such vehicles. This study provides a comprehensive overview of electric vehicles, encompassing their technical evolution, autonomy, and ownership. The analysis delved into the various types of batteries utilized in these vehicles, examining the composition of their constituent materials and the mechanisms underlying their operation. Additionally, it assessed their performance in terms of energy density storage, recharge capabilities, autonomy, and prospects. A critical evaluation of electric vehicles and their internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) counterparts, considering the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) criterion, was conducted. The LCA criterion encompasses emissions during the entire lifecycle, from the “cradle” to the “tank” (WTT) and the “tank” until the end of its cycle (TTW). The findings of this study indicate that BEVs consistently outperformed ICEVs in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in all the sizes of vehicles studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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25 pages, 5327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Energy Management Strategy for Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle Equipped with Dual-Mode Combustion Engine Under NVH Constraints

by Shupeng Zhang, Hongnan Wang, Chengkai Yang, Zeping Ouyang and Xiaoxin Wen

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 12021; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142412021 - 22 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1051

Abstract

Energy management strategies (EMSs) are a core technology in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and have a significant impact on their fuel economy. Optimal solutions for EMSs in the literature usually focus on improving fuel efficiency by operating the engine within a high efficiency [...] Read more.

Energy management strategies (EMSs) are a core technology in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and have a significant impact on their fuel economy. Optimal solutions for EMSs in the literature usually focus on improving fuel efficiency by operating the engine within a high efficiency range, without considering the drivability, which is affected by noise–vibration–harshness (NVH) constraints at low vehicle speeds. In this paper, a dual-mode combustion engine was implemented in a plug-in series hybrid electric vehiclethat could operate efficiently either at low loads in homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) mode or at high loads in spark ignition (SI) mode. An equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) combined with a dual-loop particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was designed to solve the optimal control problem. A MATLAB/Simulink simulation was performed using a well-calibrated model of the target HEV to validate the proposed method, and the results showed that it can achieve a reduction in fuel consumption of around 1.3% to 9.9%, depending on the driving cycle. In addition, the operating power of the battery can be significantly reduced, which benefits the health of the battery. Furthermore, the proposed ECMS-PSO is computationally efficient, which guarantees fast offline optimization and enables real-time applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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22 pages, 6230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

FEA-Based Design Procedure for IPMSM and IM for a Hybrid Electric Vehicle

by Emad Roshandel, Amin Mahmoudi, Wen L. Soong, Solmaz Kahourzade and Nathan Kalisch

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(22), 10743; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210743 - 20 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1133

Abstract

This paper describes the detailed design procedure of electric machines using finite element analysis (FEA). The proposed method uses the available findings from the literature and FEA results for the design procedure. In addition to electromagnetic analysis, thermal analysis is executed to examine [...] Read more.

This paper describes the detailed design procedure of electric machines using finite element analysis (FEA). The proposed method uses the available findings from the literature and FEA results for the design procedure. In addition to electromagnetic analysis, thermal analysis is executed to examine the capability of the designed machines for handling the load in terms of thermal limits. It allows for considering the normal and overload performance of the electric machines during design. The proposed design procedure is used for designing a 100 kW induction machine (IM) and interior permanent magnet synchronous machine (IPMSM) for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). The differences between the performance parameters of the studied machines are discussed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each design are highlighted. The designed machines are compared with commercially available electrical machines in terms of performance and power density. The comparison demonstrates that the developed machines can offer comparable performance to other designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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14 pages, 2802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Case of Interdisciplinary Fusion under Dual Carbon Goal: Coordinated Carbon Reduction with Greenhouse Photovoltaics and Electric Vehicles

by Juai Wu, Shiyang Deng, Yuanmeng Zhu, Yun Liu, Yang Andrew Wu, Rong Fu and Sipeng Hao

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(4), 2410; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13042410 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1773

Abstract

Building a new type of power system is an important guarantee to support China’s “dual carbon” goal. Due to the inseparable relationship between industrial and agricultural production and electric energy utilization, there must be interdisciplinary integration to achieve the goal of “dual carbon”. [...] Read more.

Building a new type of power system is an important guarantee to support China’s “dual carbon” goal. Due to the inseparable relationship between industrial and agricultural production and electric energy utilization, there must be interdisciplinary integration to achieve the goal of “dual carbon”. The disciplines of horticulture and electric power are taken as examples in this paper to analyze the feasibility of carbon emission reduction through coordinating agricultural photovoltaic (PV) greenhouse and electric vehicle (EV) energy storage. Firstly, the mechanism of carbon emission difference caused by electric energy supplementing during EV charging is analyzed. Secondly, in the context of the contradiction between the reduction of battery life caused by discharging (increasing carbon emission) and the increase in PV output consumption by orderly charging and discharging (reducing carbon emission), an optimization model for the synergistic operation of EV clusters and greenhouse PVs (with the objective of minimizing carbon emissions) is proposed. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed model is verified through simulation cases. The energy storage characteristics of EVs is capable of realizing the transfer of PV power generation in the time dimension, and the coordinated operation of greenhouse PVs and EVs’ charging and discharging can effectively reduce carbon emission during the EV operation period. In a typical summer scenario of PV output, the carbon emission of EVs in V2G (vehicle to grid) mode was reduced by 69.13% compared to disorderly charging. It is shown that the adequacy of PV generation and the orderly dispatching of the charging and discharging of EVs are the key factors in reducing carbon emission throughout the life cycle of EVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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10 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Preliminary Feasibility Study of Electric Taxi Promotion in Hong Kong—Behavior Modelling of Driving Patterns and Preferences

by Yang Andrew Wu, Yui-Yip Lau, Lok Man Wong and Juai Wu

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(3), 1491; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031491 - 23 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3602

Abstract

In 2013, the first electric taxis were launched in Hong Kong. In 2021, the HKSAR government announced that no new registration of fuel-propelled private cars, including hybrid vehicles, will be granted by the year 2035. Local public policies have shown a breakthrough milestone [...] Read more.

In 2013, the first electric taxis were launched in Hong Kong. In 2021, the HKSAR government announced that no new registration of fuel-propelled private cars, including hybrid vehicles, will be granted by the year 2035. Local public policies have shown a breakthrough milestone in the passenger transport sector and fostered the development of a smart city in Hong Kong as an international metropolis. This paper aims to study the feasibility of gradually introducing electric vehicles (EVs) in the Hong Kong taxi industry in the next decade. In particular, taxi license owners’ intentions of purchasing electric vehicles for operational use and the driving behavior of taxi drivers in Hong Kong are investigated. Multiagent modelling with an integrated behavioral model is then adopted to analyze the survey data collected from 250 taxi drivers in Hong Kong, followed by interviews with industrial experts. The implications for future public policies are then discussed. To achieve emission reduction, the paper suggests a gradual, step-by-step promotion and transfer from conventional taxis to electric taxis in Hong Kong, with consideration of various factors and the interests of different stakeholders in the community. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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8 pages, 1907 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Single-Stage Transformerless Buck–Boost Inverter for Electric Vehicle Chargers

by Lixia Wang, Chenming Liu and Jingyang Fang

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(13), 6705; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136705 - 1 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2338

Abstract

This paper details the design and implementation of a single-stage transformerless buck–boost inverter for electric vehicle (EV) chargers. Being different from conventional H-bridge inverters, the proposed inverter operates like buck–boost dc/dc converters instead of buck dc/dc converters. As a consequence, the advantages of [...] Read more.

This paper details the design and implementation of a single-stage transformerless buck–boost inverter for electric vehicle (EV) chargers. Being different from conventional H-bridge inverters, the proposed inverter operates like buck–boost dc/dc converters instead of buck dc/dc converters. As a consequence, the advantages of a buck–boost dc/dc converter, i.e., the arbitrary relationships between its input voltage and output voltage, are still applicable to the proposed inverter. Specifically, it remains in normal operation even when the peak ac output voltage is higher than the dc-link voltage. Simulation results are finally presented to illustrate its effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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19 pages, 892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Induction Machine-Based EV Vector Control Model Using Mamdani Fuzzy Logic Controller

by Humayun Salahuddin, Kashif Imdad, Muhammad Umar Chaudhry, Dmitry Nazarenko, Vadim Bolshev and Muhammad Yasir

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(9), 4647; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12094647 - 5 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2797

Abstract

The substantial rise in the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has emphasized an environment-friendly and intelligent design for speed control strategies. In this paper, a Mamdani fuzzy logic controller (MFLC) was proposed to vigorously control the speed of EVs at discrete levels. MFLC [...] Read more.

The substantial rise in the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has emphasized an environment-friendly and intelligent design for speed control strategies. In this paper, a Mamdani fuzzy logic controller (MFLC) was proposed to vigorously control the speed of EVs at discrete levels. MFLC member functions (MFs) are tuned for EVs operating at three different speed modes (40, 60, and 80 km/h). The proposed speed controller operation for the speed tracking of EVs was designed and tested in MATLAB (Simulink) environment. The proposed speed controller validated a remarkable improvement in dynamic speed control compared with existing P-I, FLC, Fuzzy FOPID (ACO), Fuzzy FOPID (GA), and Fuzzy FOPID (PSO) controllers. Its stability under a user-defined drive pattern is also observed. In this proposed work, the speed controller highlights the better tracking of user-defined speed response compared to the conventional aforementioned controllers. Moreover, the speed tracking of the designed model was tested for robustness against speed transients at predefined time instants, respectively. The comparison suggests that the MFLC model removes overshoot and significantly reduces the steady-state time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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17 pages, 13711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Design of Inertia for Grid-Tied Electric Vehicle Chargers Operating as Virtual Synchronous Machines

by Chenming Liu and Jingyang Fang

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 2194; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12042194 - 19 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2677

Abstract

Renewable energy resources (RES), e.g., solar photovoltaic (PV), wind energy, and electric vehicles (EVs) are extensively integrated into modern power electronics-based power systems due to their sustainable and environmentally friendly features. This has gradually reshaped the frequency regulation structure of power systems. Specifically, [...] Read more.

Renewable energy resources (RES), e.g., solar photovoltaic (PV), wind energy, and electric vehicles (EVs) are extensively integrated into modern power electronics-based power systems due to their sustainable and environmentally friendly features. This has gradually reshaped the frequency regulation structure of power systems. Specifically, the duty of frequency regulation, previously supported by synchronous generators, will be taken over by grid-tied power converters (such as EV chargers), which can be controlled as virtual synchronous machines (VSMs) to mimic the inertial response of synchronous generators. However, being different from synchronous generators, VSMs enable fast frequency regulation. As a consequence, it is identified in this paper that the elimination of frequency oscillations is possible. Therefore, instead of simply increasing inertia for oscillations suppression, the desirable inertia coefficient can be different for various cases. In order to illustrate this point, relationships between several important performance indices, such as the rate-of-change-of-frequency, frequency nadir, overshoot, settling time, and inertia coefficient, are analyzed in detail. Furthermore, a straightforward method for designing the optimal inertia coefficient for VSMs is put forward. Finally, experiment results obtained from a 1-kW three-phase VSM prototype are demonstrated to validate the effectiveness of the theoretical analysis and proposed design method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Electric Vehicles)

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