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16 pages, 4527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Robust Algorithm for Fault-Plane Parameters Identification: The 2009 L’Aquila (Central Italy) Seismic Sequence Case

by Annarita Mangiacapra, Zaccaria Petrillo, Sergio Scippacercola, Luisa Valoroso, Rosa Nappi, Giuliana Alessio and Simona Tripaldi

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4444; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084444 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 207

Abstract

The study of the hypocenter distribution of seismic events related to fault structures is a crucial topic since it is linked to the geological features and to the dynamics of an investigated area. The hypocenter spatial distribution of earthquakes is used in a [...] Read more.

The study of the hypocenter distribution of seismic events related to fault structures is a crucial topic since it is linked to the geological features and to the dynamics of an investigated area. The hypocenter spatial distribution of earthquakes is used in a novel algorithmic method to clusterize earthquakes to accurately identify the strike and the dip parameters of seismogenic faults. Our algorithm works as a fast and efficient explorer in a five-dimensional space (x, y, z, τ, ϕ). It randomly selects several seismic events (pivots) and counts in all angular directions, for each pivot, how many hypocenters can be included in a prefixed volume (two dimensions larger than the third). The result is a volume that contains the maximum number of earthquakes occurring within a minimum distance from a flat area corresponding to the searched fault. With this volume is associated a hypocenter occurrence density angular diagram and a likelihood function. The likelihood function is useful to individuate the best value of the fault thickness and to test the hypothesis of fault flatness. Our algorithm was tested on simulated data and then successfully applied to the real case of the 2009 Mw6.1 L’Aquila (Central Italy) seismic sequence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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23 pages, 8968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of a Substandard Reinforced Concrete Frame’s Beam–Column Joint Using Shake Table Testing

by Evrim Oyguc, Resat Oyguc and Abdul Hayir

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4168; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084168 - 10 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 344

Abstract

This study investigates the seismic performance of substandard reinforced concrete (RC) frames, particularly emphasizing the behavior of beam–column joints through comprehensive shake table testing. Historical evidence indicates that RC structures erected prior to the 1970s frequently exhibit critical deficiencies in shear reinforcement, significantly [...] Read more.

This study investigates the seismic performance of substandard reinforced concrete (RC) frames, particularly emphasizing the behavior of beam–column joints through comprehensive shake table testing. Historical evidence indicates that RC structures erected prior to the 1970s frequently exhibit critical deficiencies in shear reinforcement, significantly undermining their seismic resilience. The primary objective of this research is to experimentally quantify the shear capacity, deformability, and failure mechanisms of beam–column joints within substandard RC frames. Shake table experiments were conducted on a meticulously scaled (one-third scale), single-story, single-bay RC frame, representative of construction practices typical of 1980s Türkiye. The input seismic loading was derived and scaled from the recorded ground motions of the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquake to ensure realistic seismic demand conditions. Experimental outcomes revealed a maximum lateral displacement of 53.1 mm, corresponding to a story drift ratio of approximately 0.055 radians and a computed damage index of 0.758, indicative of near-collapse performance levels. Notable damage observations included extensive shear cracking and concrete spalling at beam–column interfaces, accompanied by pronounced pinching effects during cyclic loading. The findings emphasize an urgent need for targeted seismic retrofit solutions, specifically addressing shear vulnerabilities in beam–column joints. Furthermore, the results carry substantial implications for revising current seismic design codes and enhancing the earthquake resilience of existing RC infrastructure in seismic-prone regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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17 pages, 36321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of an M 7.1 Lateral Fault Coastal Earthquake: A Plausible Scenario for Seismic Hazard Assessment in Michoacan, Mexico

by Ricardo Vázquez Rosas, Jorge Aguirre González, Gerardo León Soto and José Antonio Hernández Servín

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 4026; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15074026 - 6 Apr 2025

Viewed by 805

Abstract

The effects of a synthetic M 7.1 strike lateral earthquake are evaluated at five sites in Michoacan state, western Mexico. In this work, the ground motion simulation was applied using the empirical Green’s function method proposed by Irikura (1986) by scaling the recordings [...] Read more.

The effects of a synthetic M 7.1 strike lateral earthquake are evaluated at five sites in Michoacan state, western Mexico. In this work, the ground motion simulation was applied using the empirical Green’s function method proposed by Irikura (1986) by scaling the recordings of an M 5.1 left-lateral event to a hypothetical M 7.1 event assuming the same source mechanism. An M 4.3 was used as a Green’s function to generate an M 5.1 synthetic earthquake. Comparing the observed and synthetic M 5.1 earthquake, parameters were adjusted in order to scale the M 7.1 earthquake. Seven scenarios were tested for which the corresponding PGA and PGV were calculated. The results show that the maximum intensities at each station depend on the proposed rupture starting point. The highest Peak Ground Acceleration was 74.1 cm/s² corresponding to an intensity MMI of V at FMIR station located 60 km from the epicenter. The synthetic results constitute a useful input for seismic hazard studies in a state with poor instrumental deployment, such as Michoacan, and for technical standards for earthquake design that could be considered in the corresponding construction regulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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25 pages, 20414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Target Displacements in RC Buildings for 2023 Türkiye Earthquakes

by Ercan Işık, Fatih Avcil, Aydın Büyüksaraç and Enes Arkan

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 4014; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15074014 - 5 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 425

Abstract

The Kahramanmaraş (Türkiye) earthquake on 6 February 2023, one of the largest earthquakes of the century, caused the collapse or severe damage of thousands of structures. This catastrophic disaster resulted in over 53,000 fatalities and rendered many structures unusable. This study addresses the [...] Read more.

The Kahramanmaraş (Türkiye) earthquake on 6 February 2023, one of the largest earthquakes of the century, caused the collapse or severe damage of thousands of structures. This catastrophic disaster resulted in over 53,000 fatalities and rendered many structures unusable. This study addresses the observed damage in reinforced concrete (RC) structures, which constituted the majority of the existing urban building stock. In this study, firstly, information about the destructive Kahramanmaraş earthquakes was given. The predicted PGAs in the last two earthquake hazard maps used in Türkiye were compared with the measured PGAs from actual earthquakes to determine whether the earthquake hazard is adequately represented for eleven affected provinces in the earthquake region. The damages in RC structures were evaluated within the scope of civil and earthquake engineering. Structural analyses for the model created to represent mid-rise RC buildings in the region were carried out separately for each province using predicted and measured PGAs. Additionally, target displacements that were used in performance-based earthquake engineering for damage prediction, were examined comparatively for all provinces. While the predicted earthquake hazard and targeted displacements were exceeded in some provinces, there was no exceedance in the other provinces. The realistic representation of earthquake hazards will allow the predicted displacements for various performance levels of structures to be determined in a much more realistic way. Consequently, the performance levels predicted for the structures will be assessed with greater accuracy. The study highlights the importance of accurately presenting earthquake hazards to predict building performance effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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29 pages, 11206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Seismic Response and AdaBoost Regressor-Based Vulnerability Analysis of an ±800 kV Suspended Filter Capacitor

by Quan Zhou, Yongheng Mao, Zhongkai Yin, Chang He and Ting Yang

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3314; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063314 - 18 Mar 2025

Viewed by 214

Abstract

Existing seismic evaluations of electrical equipment in substations mainly focus on post-type equipment, with few studies addressing the suspended equipment that exhibits significant geometric nonlinearity. Most of the vulnerability analyses on substation equipment consider only ground motion uncertainty, not processing other uncertainties including [...] Read more.

Existing seismic evaluations of electrical equipment in substations mainly focus on post-type equipment, with few studies addressing the suspended equipment that exhibits significant geometric nonlinearity. Most of the vulnerability analyses on substation equipment consider only ground motion uncertainty, not processing other uncertainties including material properties. Thus, this paper investigates the seismic responses of an ±800 kV suspended filter capacitor using a simulation model. A new approach for vulnerability assessment based on an adaptive boosting (AdaBoost) regressor is proposed considering the uncertainties of multiple material parameters of the suspension insulators. It is applied to the filter capacitor and validated by conventional incremental dynamic analysis (IDA). In addition, the influence of the pre-tension force of the bottommost suspension insulators is also discussed. The results indicate that increasing the pre-tension force can avoid pressure generation in the insulators and reduce the maximum displacements of the filter capacitor. The failure probability will significantly increase when the pre-tension force increases from 20 kN, although the growth rate continues to fall. The established AdaBoost regressors substantially lower the calculational cost while maintaining an accurate vulnerability prediction, compared to IDA. The proposed method is endorsed due to its high accuracy and low calculation cost, although its feasibility is validated by only one suspended filter capacitor in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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21 pages, 3806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Critical Ground Motion Parameters for Damage Prediction in Reinforced Concrete Frame Existing Buildings

by Tanja Kalman Šipoš, Adriana Brandis, Uroš Bohinc and Uroš Ristić

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 2326; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15052326 - 21 Feb 2025

Viewed by 489

Abstract

This study aimed to identify the critical ground motion parameters that lead to structural damage and assess their impact on the nonlinear responses of buildings. The analyses are carried out using a calibrated numerical model that was acquired within the ICONS experimental framework [...] Read more.

This study aimed to identify the critical ground motion parameters that lead to structural damage and assess their impact on the nonlinear responses of buildings. The analyses are carried out using a calibrated numerical model that was acquired within the ICONS experimental framework that represents reinforced concrete (RC) structures constructed before seismic design regulations were enforced. For the analysis, 30 seismic records were chosen based on magnitude (M), epicentral distance (R), and peak ground acceleration (PGA) for two high seismic activity areas that were observed. Eleven parameters are categorized, traditional metrics, energy-based, spectrum-based, duration-based, and fundamental metrics, and examined based on their main attributes. The results showed a strong relationship between certain seismic properties and the maximum interstory drifts of building as a damage prediction parameter. Peak ground velocity (PGV), specific energy density (SED), and Housner Intensity (HI) were found to be the most important variables in assessing the correlation with possible structural damage. Therefore, the assessment of structural damage based on nonlinear dynamic analysis should primarily incorporate PGV with the possible addition of energy- and spectrum-based metrics as the most reliable ground motion parameters for the selection of earthquake records for time history analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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14 pages, 7866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The First Seismic Imaging of the Holy Cross Fault in the Łysogóry Region, Poland

by Eslam Roshdy, Artur Marciniak, Rafał Szaniawski and Mariusz Majdański

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020511 - 7 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 883

Abstract

The Holy Cross Mountains represent an isolated outcrop of Palaeozoic rocks located in the Trans-European Suture Zone, which is the boundary between the Precambrian East European Craton and Phanerozoic mobile belts of South-Western Europe. Despite extensive structural history studies, high-resolution seismic profiling has [...] Read more.

The Holy Cross Mountains represent an isolated outcrop of Palaeozoic rocks located in the Trans-European Suture Zone, which is the boundary between the Precambrian East European Craton and Phanerozoic mobile belts of South-Western Europe. Despite extensive structural history studies, high-resolution seismic profiling has not been applied to this region until now. This research introduces near-surface seismic imaging of the Holy Cross Fault, separating two tectonic units of different stratigraphic and deformation history. In our study, we utilize a carefully designed weight drop source survey with 5 m shot and receiver spacing and 4.5 Hz geophones. The imaging technique, combining seismic reflection profiling and travel time tomography, reveals detailed fault geometries down to 400 m. Precise data processing, including static corrections and noise attenuation, significantly enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and seismic resolution. Furthermore, the paper discusses various fault imaging techniques with their shortcomings. The data reveal a complex network of intersecting fault strands, confirming general thrust fault geometry of the fault system, that align with the region’s tectonic evolution. These findings enhance understanding of the Holy Cross Mountains’ structural framework and provide valuable reference data for future studies of similar tectonic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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21 pages, 8014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seismic Reliability Evaluation Strategy for Substation Systems Based on the Quasi-Monte Carlo Simulation Method and Triangle Algorithm

by Xiaohang Liu, Shansuo Zheng, Qing Qin and Piji Hou

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15010292 - 31 Dec 2024

Viewed by 694

Abstract

Power systems are the backbone of modern society. As critical facilities for the transmission and conversion of electric power, substations are vital to the stable operation of power systems. Quantifying the residual seismic capacity of the substation system is an urgent issue to [...] Read more.

Power systems are the backbone of modern society. As critical facilities for the transmission and conversion of electric power, substations are vital to the stable operation of power systems. Quantifying the residual seismic capacity of the substation system is an urgent issue to be addressed. Therefore, this study proposes a reliability assessment process based on network matrix algorithms and efficient simulation methods to evaluate substation systems. A typical 220 kV substation in China with 6 incoming lines and 10 outgoing lines was studied with this assessment process. The results of the case study showed that the redundancy of transformer units, due to their excessive fragility, does not effectively guarantee the complete function of the system after an earthquake. In this work, 220 kV circuit breakers, voltage transformers, and 110 kV disconnect switches were evaluated as the most vulnerable functional equipment in the substation system; improving their seismic performance can significantly improve the seismic reliability of the entire system. Furthermore, the evaluation process demonstrated that substations are more susceptible to earthquakes than individual pieces of equipment, indicating that the redundancy of existing substations is insufficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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28 pages, 23173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joint Multi-Scenario-Based Earthquake and Tsunami Hazard Assessment for Alexandria, Egypt

by Hazem Badreldin, Hany M. Hassan, Fabio Romanelli, Mahmoud El-Hadidy and Mohamed N. ElGabry

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11896; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411896 - 19 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1621

Abstract

The available historical documents for the city of Alexandria indicate that it was damaged to varying degrees by several (historical and instrumentally recorded) earthquakes and by highly destructive tsunamis reported at some places along the Mediterranean coast. In this work, we applied the [...] Read more.

The available historical documents for the city of Alexandria indicate that it was damaged to varying degrees by several (historical and instrumentally recorded) earthquakes and by highly destructive tsunamis reported at some places along the Mediterranean coast. In this work, we applied the neo-deterministic seismic hazard analysis (NDSHA) approach to the Alexandria metropolitan area, estimating ground motion intensity parameters, e.g., peak ground displacement (PGD), peak ground velocity (PGV), peak ground acceleration (PGA), and spectral response, at selected rock sites. The results of this NDSHA zonation at a subregional/urban scale, which can be directly used as seismic input for engineering analysis, indicate a relatively high seismic hazard in the Alexandria region (e.g., 0.15 g), and they can provide an essential knowledge base for detailed and comprehensive seismic microzonation studies at an urban scale. Additionally, we established detailed tsunami hazard inundation maps for Alexandria Governorate based on empirical relations and considering various Manning’s Roughness Coefficients. Across all the considered scenarios, the average estimated time of arrival (ETA) of tsunami waves for Alexandria was 75–80 min. According to this study, the most affected sites in Alexandria are those belonging to the districts of Al Gomrok and Al Montazah. The west of the city, called Al Sahel Al Shamally, is less affected than the east, as it is protected by a carbonate ridge parallel to the coastline. Finally, we emphasize the direct applicability of our study to urban planning and risk management in Alexandria. Our study can contribute to identifying vulnerable areas, prioritizing mitigation measures, informing land-use planning and building codes, and enhancing multi-hazard risk analysis and early warning systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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25 pages, 6814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Seismic Response of a Water-Conveyance Tunnel Considering Non-Uniform Longitudinal Subsurface Geometry and Obliquely Incident SV-Waves

by Erlei Yao, Yu Rao, Meishan Liu, Zhifang Liu and Ang Cao

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4398; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114398 - 22 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 917

Abstract

The longitudinal seismic response characteristics of a shallow-buried water-conveyance tunnel under non-uniform longitudinal subsurface geometry and obliquely incident SV-waves was studied using the numerical method, where the effect of the non-uniform longitudinal subsurface geometry due to the existence of a local one-sided rock [...] Read more.

The longitudinal seismic response characteristics of a shallow-buried water-conveyance tunnel under non-uniform longitudinal subsurface geometry and obliquely incident SV-waves was studied using the numerical method, where the effect of the non-uniform longitudinal subsurface geometry due to the existence of a local one-sided rock mountain on the seismic response of the tunnel was focused on. Correspondingly, a large-scale three-dimensional (3D) finite-element model was established, where different incidence angles and incidence directions of the SV-wave were taken into consideration. Also, the non-linearity of soil and rock and the damage plastic of the concrete lining were incorporated. In addition, the wave field of the site and the acceleration response as well as damage of the tunnel were observed. The results revealed the following: (i) a local inclined subsurface geometry may focus an obliquely incident wave due to refraction or total reflection; (ii) a tunnel in a site adjacent to a rock mountain may exhibit a higher acceleration response than a tunnel in a homogeneous plain site; and (iii) damage in the tunnel in the site adjacent to a rock mountain may appear in multiple positions, and the effect of the incidence angle on the mode of compressive deformation and damage of the lining is of significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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26 pages, 13974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Field Reconnaissance and Earthquake Vulnerability of the RC Buildings in Adıyaman during 2023 Türkiye Earthquakes

by Ercan Işık, Fatih Avcil, Rabia İzol, Aydın Büyüksaraç, Hüseyin Bilgin, Ehsan Harirchian and Enes Arkan

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 2860; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14072860 - 28 Mar 2024

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 1907

Abstract

The 6th February 2023 Pazarcık and Elbistan earthquakes (M_w = 7.7 and M_w = 7.6) caused great destruction in many cities and were the disaster of the century for Türkiye. The greatest destruction was caused in the provinces of Hatay, Kahramanmaraş, [...] Read more.

The 6th February 2023 Pazarcık and Elbistan earthquakes (M_w = 7.7 and M_w = 7.6) caused great destruction in many cities and were the disaster of the century for Türkiye. The greatest destruction was caused in the provinces of Hatay, Kahramanmaraş, and Adıyaman during these earthquakes, which were independent of each other and occurred on the same day. Information about earthquakes and strong ground motion records is given within the scope of this study. Reinforced concrete (RC) structures which constitute a large part of the urban building stock in the earthquake region were exposed to structural damage at different levels. The structural damage in the RC structures in the city center, Gölbaşı, and Kahta districts of the province of Adıyaman was evaluated within the scope of earthquake and civil engineering after field investigations. Insufficient RC, low-strength concrete reinforcement problems, RC frame failure, heavy overhang, short columns, soft story, and pounding effect are the main causes of the earthquake damage. The presence of these factors that reduce the earthquake resistance of RC structures increased the damage level. In addition, the fact that the earthquakes occurred nine hours apart and the continuation of aftershocks during that period negatively affected the damage levels. It has been observed that structures that receive the necessary engineering services during the construction and project phases ensure the safety of life and property, even if the structure is slightly damaged. In this study, we also tried to reveal whether the target displacements were satisfactorily represented by numerical analysis for a sample RC structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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15 pages, 1760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Visual Screening Feature Importance for Seismic Vulnerability Ranking via Machine Learning and SHAP Values

by Ioannis Karampinis, Lazaros Iliadis and Athanasios Karabinis

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 2609; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062609 - 20 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1593

Abstract

Structures inevitably suffer damage after an earthquake, with severity ranging from minimal damage of nonstructural elements to partial or even total collapse, possibly with loss of human lives. Thus, it is essential for engineers to understand the crucial factors that drive a structure [...] Read more.

Structures inevitably suffer damage after an earthquake, with severity ranging from minimal damage of nonstructural elements to partial or even total collapse, possibly with loss of human lives. Thus, it is essential for engineers to understand the crucial factors that drive a structure towards suffering higher degrees of damage in order for preventative measures to be taken. In the present study, we focus on three well-known damage thresholds: the Collapse Limit State, Ultimate Limit State, and Serviceability Limit State. We analyze the features obtained via Rapid Visual Screening to determine whether or not a given structure crosses these thresholds. To this end, we use machine learning to perform binary classification for each damage threshold, and use explainability to quantify the effect of each parameter via SHAP values (SHapley Additive exPlanations). The quantitative results that we obtain demonstrate the potential applicability of ML methods for recalibrating the computation of structural vulnerability indices using data from recent earthquakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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Review

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30 pages, 3561 KiB

Open AccessReview

Physical and Mechanical Properties and Constitutive Model of Rock Mass Under THMC Coupling: A Comprehensive Review

by Jianxiu Wang, Bilal Ahmed, Jian Huang, Xingzhong Nong, Rui Xiao, Naveed Sarwar Abbasi, Sharif Nyanzi Alidekyi and Huboqiang Li

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 2230; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15042230 - 19 Feb 2025

Viewed by 915

Abstract

Research on the multi-field coupling effects in rocks has been ongoing for several decades, encompassing studies on single physical fields as well as two-field (TH, TM, HM) and three-field (THM) couplings. However, the environmental conditions of rock masses in deep resource extraction and [...] Read more.

Research on the multi-field coupling effects in rocks has been ongoing for several decades, encompassing studies on single physical fields as well as two-field (TH, TM, HM) and three-field (THM) couplings. However, the environmental conditions of rock masses in deep resource extraction and underground space development are highly complex. In such settings, rocks are put through thermal-hydrological-mechanical-chemical (THMC) coupling effects under peak temperatures, strong osmotic pressures, extreme stress, and chemically reactive environments. The interaction between these fields is not a simple additive process but rather a dynamic interplay where each field influences the others. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of fragmentation evolution, deformation mechanics, mechanical constitutive models, and the construction of coupling models under multi-field interactions. Based on rock strength theory, the constitutive models for both multi-field coupling and creep behavior in rocks are developed. The research focus on multi-field coupling varies across industries, reflecting the diverse needs of sectors such as mineral resource extraction, oil and gas production, geothermal energy, water conservancy, hydropower engineering, permafrost engineering, subsurface construction, nuclear waste disposal, and deep energy storage. The coupling of intense stress, fluid flow, temperature, and chemical factors not only triggers interactions between these fields but also alters the physical and mechanical properties of the rocks themselves. Investigating the mechanical behavior of rocks under these conditions is essential for averting accidents and assuring the soundness of engineering projects. Eventually, we discuss vital challenges and future directions in multi-field coupling research, providing valuable insights for engineering applications and addressing allied issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquake Engineering and Seismic Risk)

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