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Animals
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Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs
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Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Pigs".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2025 | Viewed by 12578

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Sung Woo Kim

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Guest Editor
Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, 116 Polk Hall, Campus Box 7621, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
Interests: monogastric nutrition; digestive physiology; intestinal health; maternal and perinatal nutrition; swine production
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Crystal L.L. Lévesque

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Animal Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
Interests: sow amino acid metabolism; sow nutrient digestion; offspring growth and development

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With alterations in their genetic potential, sows have an increased number of fetuses that are heavier than before. Sows are expected to supply more nutrients to support the growth of fetuses and mammary glands, as well as to support milk production after parturition. Maternal nutrition is critically important for the perinatal growth of piglets. This Special Issue welcomes both research articles and review articles in relation to the impacts of maternal nutrition on maternal health and neonatal development in pigs, including, but not limited to, alternative feeds or feeding protocols for pregnant swine, mammary development in swine, research related to improving maternal growth, and fatty acid, protein, and amino acid metabolism during pregnancy.

Prof. Dr. Sung Woo Kim
Dr. Crystal L.L. Lévesque
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • maternal nutrition
  • neonatal development
  • pig
  • fetus
  • mammary gland
  • epigenetics

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 1838 KiB  
Article
Impact of Maternal Parity and Direct-Fed Microbial Supplementation on Reproductive Performance, Digestibility, and Milk Quality from Early Gestation to Lactation in Sows
by Panumas Kongpanna, John A. Doerr, Uttra Jamikorn and Dachrit Nilubol
Animals 2025, 15(9), 1191; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091191 - 22 Apr 2025
Viewed by 287
Abstract
The experiment was conducted to determine the interaction effects of parity and DFM supplementation from early gestation (G 21) to lactation (L 21) on reproductive performance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), colostrum IgA and IgG, and mature milk composition. Three hundred pregnant sows [...] Read more.
The experiment was conducted to determine the interaction effects of parity and DFM supplementation from early gestation (G 21) to lactation (L 21) on reproductive performance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), colostrum IgA and IgG, and mature milk composition. Three hundred pregnant sows were blocked by parity (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6–9) and randomly assigned to two experimental diets in a randomized complete block design, with a control (CON, n = 150) group and direct-fed microbial (DFM, n = 150) group. The DFM contained 5 × 107 cfu/g of Bacillus subtilis and 2 × 106 cfu/g of Lactobacillus spp. Reproductive traits recorded included total born (TB), born alive (BA), litter weight (LW), piglets born dead (PBD) weaning weight (WW), number of weaning pig (NWP), and PWM. Two separate 14 d ATTD trials were conducted on G86 to G100 and L7 to L21. Colostrum samples were collected at 0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h post-partum and mature milks were collected at L7 and L14 for Ig and composition analysis, respectively. Total Ig concentrations were measured by an ELISA. The interaction between diet and parity was found on LW, colostrum IgG, milk lactose, and protein (p < 0.05). Regardless of parity, sows fed DFM had greater reproductive performance with higher BA, LS, LW, and lower in PWM (p < 0.05). DFM also improved the ATTD of organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), and ether extracts (EE) (p < 0.05) at G100 and gross energy (GE), CP, and EE (p < 0.05) at L21. Entire IgG and 3 h post-partum IgA in colostrum were higher in DFM than in the CON diet (p < 0.05). Parity effects were seen on NWP, LW, CP, and EE, colostrum Ig at 12 and 24 post-partum, milk protein, and lactose at L7 (p < 0.05). Moreover, the parity showed linear effect on TB, BA, LW, litter size (LS), WW, total PWM, the ATTD of OM and EE, colostrum IgG at 12 h and IgA at 12 and 24 h post-partum, milk fat at L7 and L21, and milk lactose at L14 (p < 0.05). Stepwise prediction for average colostrum IgG (mg/mL) by using nutrient digestibility = −112.97 + 0.706GE(%) + 0.518CP(%) + 0.267EE(%) (n = 267, R2 = 0.38, RSD = 6.7, p < 0.001). In summary, supplementing dietary DFM during early gestation through weaning had positive effects on production, the lifetime of sows, and better nutrient utilization, resulting in better milk quality and better piglet growth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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16 pages, 269 KiB  
Article
Effect of Low- and High-Sulfur-Containing Amino Acid Inclusion in Diets Fed to Primiparous Sows in Late Gestation on Pre-Partum Nitrogen Retention and Offspring Pre- and Post-Weaning Growth Performance
by Cristhiam Jhoseph Munoz Alfonso, Lee-Anne Huber and Crystal L. Levesque
Animals 2024, 14(24), 3681; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14243681 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 720
Abstract
Twenty-seven gestating primiparous sows (203 ± 9.1 kg initial body weight on d 89 ± 1 of gestation) were selected to determine the effect of standardized ileal digestible (SID) sulfur-containing amino acid (SAA) intake during late gestation on whole-body nitrogen (N) retention and [...] Read more.
Twenty-seven gestating primiparous sows (203 ± 9.1 kg initial body weight on d 89 ± 1 of gestation) were selected to determine the effect of standardized ileal digestible (SID) sulfur-containing amino acid (SAA) intake during late gestation on whole-body nitrogen (N) retention and subsequent litter performance. Primiparous sows were assigned to one of two experimental diets that provided SAAs at 63 or 200% of the estimated requirements during late gestation (0.29 and 0.92% SID SAAs, respectively; n = 15 and 12, respectively). The diets were isoenergetic, and the SID Lys was 0.80% in both diets. Each gilt received 2.50 kg of the assigned diet between gestation d 90 and farrowing. Common lactation and nursery diets were provided to all primiparous sows after farrowing and offspring after weaning, respectively. Gilt whole-body N balance was determined between d 107 and 109 of gestation using total urine collection and fecal grab sampling. After farrowing, litters were standardized to 13 piglets and were not offered creep feed. Whole-body N retention was greater in primiparous sows fed the diet containing 0.92 vs. 0.29% SID SAAs in late gestation (27.2 vs. 19.3 ± 1.8 g/d; p < 0.05), but the number of piglets born alive, litter birth weight, subsequent piglet growth rates, and litter size at weaning were not different between the treatment groups. The post-weaning growth performance of the offspring was not influenced by maternal dietary treatment in late gestation. At farrowing, the post-absorptive plasma concentration of Tau was greater (p < 0.01) for primiparous sows fed 0.92 vs. 0.29% SID SAAs in late gestation, and offspring from primiparous sows fed 0.92% SID SAAs tended to have greater plasma homocysteine (Hcys; p = 0.066). Post-absorptive plasma AAs Ile, Leu, Val, and Tyr were greater (p < 0.05), and Ser tended to be greater (p = 0.071) in sows fed 0.92 vs. 0.29% SID SAAs. For the offspring, there were no diet effects on any of the dispensable and indispensable AA concentrations in plasma at birth, at weaning, or 3 and 6 weeks post-weaning. The primary finding is that the sow has a remarkable ability to buffer dietary AA imbalances, ensuring fetal growth even when SAA intake is below the current requirement estimates. While sufficient supplemental SAA intake is essential for the sow’s well-being, excessive SAA levels may not confer additional advantages in terms of sow or piglet growth and the production of vital metabolites. This research emphasizes the importance of meticulously balanced diets for pregnant sows to simultaneously support maternal growth and nitrogen retention, which may also have an impact on the synthesis of biomolecules linked to improving health outcomes for the offspring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
20 pages, 720 KiB  
Article
Impact of Precision Feeding During Gestation on the Performance of Sows over Three Cycles
by Laetitia Cloutier, Lucie Galiot, Béatrice Sauvé, Carole Pierre, Frédéric Guay, Gabrielle Dumas, Patrick Gagnon and Marie-Pierre Létourneau Montminy
Animals 2024, 14(23), 3513; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14233513 - 5 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 964
Abstract
This study evaluated the impact of precision feeding and bump feeding strategies during gestation on the reproductive performance of sows monitored over three cycles. Four treatments were compared: two constant-concentration feeding strategies (0.53% standardized ileal digestible lysine content; SID Lys) with the feed [...] Read more.
This study evaluated the impact of precision feeding and bump feeding strategies during gestation on the reproductive performance of sows monitored over three cycles. Four treatments were compared: two constant-concentration feeding strategies (0.53% standardized ileal digestible lysine content; SID Lys) with the feed supply remaining constant (flat feeding; FF) or variable (bump feeding; BF) and two precision feeding strategies based on the InraPorc model considering performance by parity (precision feeding per parity; PFP) or the weight of each sow at breeding (precision feeding by individual; PFI). Sows were followed over three gestation and lactation cycles. In the first cycle (n = 502), the birth-to-weaning piglet mortality for PFP (8.7%) and PFI (10.3%) was lower than for BF (13.8%), with FF (11.3%) being intermediate (p = 0.001). No differences were observed in litter performance during the second cycle (n = 340). During the third cycle (n = 274), the stillborn rate was lower for PFP (6.2%) than for BF (9.1%) and FF (10.4%), with PFI (7.0%) being intermediate (p = 0.01). The BF strategy did not significantly improve sow or litter performance during lactation. Meanwhile, precision feeding could reduce nitrogen (10–13%) and total phosphorus intake (6–9%) with PFP and PFI strategies. Also, the results showed that it could even reduce piglet mortality during lactation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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21 pages, 1704 KiB  
Article
Performance and Health Parameters of Sows and Their Litters Using a Probiotic Supplement Composed of Bacillus subtilis 541 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens 516
by Aline Maria Silva Barbosa, Maria Paula Souza Carvalho, Luciana de Paula Naves, Stephane Alverina Briguente da Motta, Rhuan Filipe Chaves, Maíra Resende, Daniele de Lima, Lea Hübertz Birch Hansen and Vinícius de Souza Cantarelli
Animals 2024, 14(23), 3511; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14233511 - 4 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1250
Abstract
This study investigated the efficacy of using probiotics on the performance and health parameters of sows and their litters. A randomized block design was used with 584 sows and 292 replications, with two dietary treatments: the control group (basal diet without probiotics) and [...] Read more.
This study investigated the efficacy of using probiotics on the performance and health parameters of sows and their litters. A randomized block design was used with 584 sows and 292 replications, with two dietary treatments: the control group (basal diet without probiotics) and the probiotic group (basal diet supplemented with 400 g/ton of a probiotic composed of Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis) 541 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (B. amyloliquefaciens) 516). Feed intake was evaluated throughout the experimental period. Bodyweight and backfat thickness of the sows were measured at the beginning and end of each phase. Piglets were weighed individually at birth and at weaning. Performance variables and physiological parameters were analyzed. Sows that received the probiotic supplement exhibited increased milk production (p = 0.05) and bodyweight loss, along with reduced postpartum cortisol levels (p < 0.05). The piglets from the probiotic treatment group had higher (p < 0.001) weaning weight and fewer (p < 0.05) crushing deaths, received fewer (p < 0.001) medications, and had lower (p < 0.05) excretion of pathogenic bacteria and lower (p < 0.05) excretion of fecal Lactobacillus sp. They also had higher (p < 0.05) concentration of fecal myeloperoxidase (MPO) close to weaning and improved ileal histomorphometric measures. In conclusion, supplementation with the probiotic product improves performance and promotes health parameters of the sows their litters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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20 pages, 3025 KiB  
Article
Effects of Fermented Soybean Hulls on Reproductive Performance, Blood Physiology and Immune Parameters Along with Fecal Microbiota in Sows
by Xiuguo Shang, Yingjie Cui, Chaoyue Shang, Kaiguo Gao, Yujuan Chen and Yaodong Quan
Animals 2024, 14(23), 3389; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14233389 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 944
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the effects of fermented soybean hulls (FSHS) on reproductive performance, plasma biochemical profiles, immune parameters, and fecal microbiota in sows. A total of 325 sows were randomized into five groups, each fed a diet with varying FSHS proportions: [...] Read more.
This study aims to investigate the effects of fermented soybean hulls (FSHS) on reproductive performance, plasma biochemical profiles, immune parameters, and fecal microbiota in sows. A total of 325 sows were randomized into five groups, each fed a diet with varying FSHS proportions: 0% (control), 2% (FSHS2), 4% (FSHS4), 6% (FSHS6), and 8% (FSHS8). Diets were prepared by replacing conventional soybean hulls with FSHS in equal amounts. The study lasted from day 30 to day 110 of gestation. The results indicated the following: (1) Reproductive Performance: The number of live piglets per litter, newborn litter weight, and individual piglet weight increased linearly with the increase in FSHS addition in the diet (PLinear < 0.05). A trend toward reduced farrowing duration was observed when FSHS was added to the diet (PLinear = 0.076). FSHS improved newborn weight and weight variation compared to the control when FSHS was added to the diet (PAnova < 0.05). Replacing soybean hulls with FSHS also increased fecal scores, enhancing fecal consistency and alleviating constipation (p < 0.01). (2) Plasma Biochemical Indicators: Plasma urea concentration on day 60 decreased linearly with increasing FSHS (PLinear < 0.05). Plasma total protein and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities showed quadratic effects (PQuadratic < 0.05) on day 60 and 90 of gestation, while alkaline phosphatase activity on day 90 showed a quadratic trend (PQuadratic = 0.082). (3) Hormone Levels: Plasma insulin and adrenaline levels exhibited quadratic effects on day 60 and 90 of gestation, respectively (PQuadratic < 0.05). (4) Immune Parameters: Plasma immunoglobulin G (IgG) and M (IgM) levels increased linearly with FSHS proportion on day 60 (PLinear < 0.05), but no significant changes were observed on day 90 (p > 0.05). (5) Fecal Microbiota: On day 90, the abundance of actinobacteriota increased quadratically with FSHS levels (PQuadratic < 0.05), while bacteroidota decreased linearly (PLinear < 0.05). During parturition, actinobacteriota abundance continued to increase linearly (PLinear < 0.05). Notably, the FSHS8 group had higher actinobacteriota abundance compared to the control group (p = 0.05). At the genus level, terrisporobacter showed a quadratic increase and then decrease (PQuadratic < 0.05), while ruminococcus showed a quadratic decrease and then increased (PQuadratic < 0.05). Both terrisporobacter in the FSHS2 and FSHS6 groups and ruminococcus in the FSHS8 group were more abundant compared to the control (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Dietary supplementation with FSHS increased fecal microbial diversity, alleviated the incidence of constipation, and ultimately improved sow reproductive performance. The recommended optimal addition of FSHS to the sow diet is 6%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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11 pages, 434 KiB  
Article
Energy Expenditure and Maintenance Requirements in Non-Pregnant First-Parity Sows
by Ryan S. Samuel, Soenke Moehn and Ronald O. Ball
Animals 2024, 14(22), 3276; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14223276 - 14 Nov 2024
Viewed by 957
Abstract
Five sows, non-pregnant after the first parity (body weight: 174 ± 11 kg), were used to determine energy expenditure (EE) measured as heat production (HP). Sows were fed first 1.0, then 2.0, times the recommended maintenance energy requirement (MEm) for one [...] Read more.
Five sows, non-pregnant after the first parity (body weight: 174 ± 11 kg), were used to determine energy expenditure (EE) measured as heat production (HP). Sows were fed first 1.0, then 2.0, times the recommended maintenance energy requirement (MEm) for one week each. Sows received half their daily ration in 16 half-hourly meals, then the remaining half in a large meal followed by an overnight fast in respiration chambers. Sows fed 1.0 MEm consumed 473 kJ ME/kg0.75 (22.8 MJ/d) and lost weight (−198 g/d) because HP (24.0 MJ/d) was greater than intake. Sows fed 2.0 MEm consumed 925 kJ ME/kg0.75 (44.9 MJ/d) and gained 1292 g/d and HP was 32.3 MJ/d. The respiratory quotient (RQ) of sows fed 2.0 MEm was greater than one, indicating body fat deposition. The HP when sows were eating repeated small meals (33.6 MJ/d) or a single large meal (29.8 MJ/d) was greater (p < 0.05) than the HP in the following 2 h (25.2 MJ/d). Based upon the recalculation of MEm using the present data, 506 kJ ME/kg0.75 is proposed as the MEm for non-pregnant modern sows. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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15 pages, 2378 KiB  
Article
Maternal Programming of Nursery Pig Performance and Gut Microbiome through Live Yeast Supplementation
by Kayla Law, Lee J. Johnston, Pedro E. Urriola and Andres Gomez
Animals 2024, 14(6), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14060910 - 15 Mar 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2729
Abstract
The supplementation of live yeast in pig diets is common in the post-weaning phase due to its prebiotic and probiotic effects, but little is known regarding the potential of feeding live yeast to gestating or lactating sows for transferring such benefits to their [...] Read more.
The supplementation of live yeast in pig diets is common in the post-weaning phase due to its prebiotic and probiotic effects, but little is known regarding the potential of feeding live yeast to gestating or lactating sows for transferring such benefits to their offspring through maternal programming. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of live yeast supplementation in sow diets during late gestation and lactation on their reproductive performance and its impact on offspring performance and gut microbiomes in the post-weaning period. Three dietary treatments were imposed on 92 mixed-parity sows during late gestation and lactation based upon the inclusion level of live yeast in corn/soybean meal-based diets: Control (0% yeast), Low (0.1% yeast), and High (0.5% yeast). Nursery pigs in the Low group displayed the highest feed intake in the post-weaning period and greater total gain and average daily gain in comparison to pigs in the High group. The gut microbiomes of nursery pigs differed in composition according to maternal dietary treatment groups at days 4 and 28 post weaning, highlighting higher abundances of bacterial genera typically associated with fermentation roles in the gut microbiomes of offspring of yeast-fed sows. These results indicate that the supplementation of live yeast in sow diets, depending on the inclusion level, may result in beneficial performance and specific microbiome traits for their offspring in the post-weaning period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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Review

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22 pages, 1512 KiB  
Review
Impacts of Maternal Nutrition on Sow Performance and Potential Positive Effects on Piglet Performance
by Alexa Gormley, Ki Beom Jang, Yesid Garavito-Duarte, Zixiao Deng and Sung Woo Kim
Animals 2024, 14(13), 1858; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131858 - 23 Jun 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3798
Abstract
The objectives of this review are to identify the nutritional challenges faced by modern sows and present potential solutions to mitigate excessive maternal tissue loss and reproductive failure as it relates to recent genetic improvements. Current feeding programs have limitations to support the [...] Read more.
The objectives of this review are to identify the nutritional challenges faced by modern sows and present potential solutions to mitigate excessive maternal tissue loss and reproductive failure as it relates to recent genetic improvements. Current feeding programs have limitations to support the rapid genetic improvements in reproductive performance for modern sows. Since 2012, both litter size at birth and fetal weight have increased by 2.26 pigs per litter and 0.22 kg per piglet, respectively, thereby increasing the nutrient needs for sows during gestation and lactation. Prediction models generated in this review predict that modern sows would need 31% more lysine during gestation when compared with current feeding programs. Physiological challenges facing modern sows are also addressed in this review. High oxidative stress, pelvic organ prolapse, and lameness can directly affect the sow, whereas these physiological challenges can have negative impacts on colostrum and milk quality. In response, there is growing interest in investigating the functional roles of select bioactive compounds as feed additives to mitigate the severity of these challenges. Selenium sources, catechins, and select plant extracts have been utilized to reduce oxidative stress, calcium chloride and phytase have been used to mitigate pelvic organ prolapse and lameness, algae and yeast derivatives have been used to improve colostrum and milk quality, and fiber sources and probiotics have been commonly utilized to improve sow intestinal health. Collectively, this review demonstrates the unique challenges associated with managing the feeding programs for modern sows and the opportunities for revision of the amino acid requirements as well as the use of select bioactive compounds to improve reproductive performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Development of Pigs)
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