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Journal Description

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of scientific studies related to the atmosphere, published monthly online by MDPI. The Italian Aerosol Society (IAS) and Working Group of Air Quality in European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) are affiliated with Atmosphere and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, Inspec, CAPlus / SciFinder, Astrophysics Data System, and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Environmental Science (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Atmosphere.
Companion journals for Atmosphere include: Meteorology and Aerobiology.

Impact Factor: 2.3 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4433

Latest Articles

32 pages, 3509 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quiet-Time Rapid Subauroral Plasma Flows at High Northern Magnetic Latitudes in the Dusk Sector

by Ildiko Horvath and Brian C. Lovell

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040341 (registering DOI) - 28 Mar 2026

Using satellite observations and computed variables, we specified 5 Subauroral Polarization Stream (SAPS) and 28 Subauroral Ion Drift (SAID) events observed in the Northern Hemisphere by spacecraft F18 in 2013. These SAPS-SAID flows reached supersonic velocities (2400–5200 m/s), were driven by westward E [...] Read more.

Using satellite observations and computed variables, we specified 5 Subauroral Polarization Stream (SAPS) and 28 Subauroral Ion Drift (SAID) events observed in the Northern Hemisphere by spacecraft F18 in 2013. These SAPS-SAID flows reached supersonic velocities (2400–5200 m/s), were driven by westward E × B ion drifts generated by their underlying strong poleward meridional SAPS-SAID electric (E) fields (90–190 mV/m) and northward geomagnetic B fields, and developed at high (≥68°) magnetic latitudes, in the dusk sector, sometimes on the dayside, and mostly within the downward region-2 current suggesting their previous development. Within the deepening main trough, the poleward SAPS/SAID E field increased directly with the reductions in plasma density and conductivity, suggesting positive feedback mechanisms in progress. Across the highly inclined magnetic field lines within the subauroral flow channel, the eastward/westward zonal E field E × B drifted ions equatorward/poleward and yielded large upward/downward ion drifts observed by F18. Earthward energy deposition into the SAPS and SAID channels indicates magnetospheric electromagnetic energy generations in their respective voltage generators. Conjugate observations depict the large outward SAID E field (|E_X ≈ 10 mV/m|) on 28 October 2013 and SAPS E field (|E_Z ≈ 10 mV/m|) on 14 October 2013 developed at L ≈ 10 R_E on a short timescale at dusk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Upper Atmosphere)

19 pages, 13877 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Soil Carbon Flux in the Vadose Zone of Sandy Land

by Huanlong Zhao, Yaowei Gao and Ce Zheng

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040340 (registering DOI) - 27 Mar 2026

Soil CO₂ emissions are critical for predicting terrestrial ecosystem feedbacks to climate change, yet significant knowledge gaps persist regarding carbon flux dynamics within the deep vadose zone and during freeze–thaw processes. In this study, the Mu Us Sandy Land, a representative seasonally [...] Read more.

Soil CO₂ emissions are critical for predicting terrestrial ecosystem feedbacks to climate change, yet significant knowledge gaps persist regarding carbon flux dynamics within the deep vadose zone and during freeze–thaw processes. In this study, the Mu Us Sandy Land, a representative seasonally frozen and semi-arid region in Northwestern China, was selected as the research site. Based on in situ observation data and the XGBoost algorithm, the spatiotemporal variations of soil carbon flux and its environmental drivers were investigated. Results revealed distinct depth-dependent patterns, where carbon release reached its maximum flux in the 100–200 cm layer and carbon sequestration dominated the soil layers below 200 cm. Soil temperature and moisture were the primary controlling factors, but their impacts exhibited significant depth and seasonal heterogeneity. Notably, in the 20–50 cm soil layer, soil water content provided the highest explanatory power, reaching 55.3% and 47.8% in winter and summer, respectively. Furthermore, carbon fluxes exhibited distinct response thresholds to environmental factors, and their spatiotemporal variations were fundamentally regulated by an atmosphere-driven coupled water–vapor–heat–carbon process. These findings elucidate the complex relationship between soil carbon fluxes and the environment at different depths, providing theoretical support for deepening the understanding of regional carbon cycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compound Extreme Events in a Changing Climate: Atmospheric Mechanisms and Hydrological Consequences)

19 pages, 997 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Dual-Branch Typhoon-Gated Axial Transformer for Accurate Tropical Cyclone Path Forecasting

by Xiaoyang Huang, Kenan Fan, Xiaolin Zhu and Wei Lv

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040339 - 27 Mar 2026

Typhoon track prediction is an important research direction in weather forecasting. Although deep learning methods have achieved some progress in this field, challenges remain, including insufficient fusion of meteorological features, limited capability in modeling temporal and spatial evolution, and high computational cost of [...] Read more.

Typhoon track prediction is an important research direction in weather forecasting. Although deep learning methods have achieved some progress in this field, challenges remain, including insufficient fusion of meteorological features, limited capability in modeling temporal and spatial evolution, and high computational cost of some models. To address these issues, this paper proposes a dual-path, multi-modal typhoon track prediction model that incorporates a gated axial Transformer to enhance the modeling of deep structural features in the meteorological environment. Numerical experimental results show that the proposed model achieves higher prediction accuracy than comparative methods in typhoon track prediction tasks across multiple time scales, demonstrating the effectiveness of the approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)

15 pages, 2885 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Influence of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments on Vehicle CO₂ Emissions Based on Real-World Testing

by Yongquan Li, Ling Pan, Yunchu Wu, Xiaofeng Su, Xiaofei Wang and Fei Yu

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040338 - 27 Mar 2026

Road transportation is a major contributor to global CO₂ emissions, yet the influence of road geometry on vehicular emissions remains insufficiently quantified under real-world conditions. This study investigates the effects of horizontal and vertical alignments on CO₂ emissions of a light-duty [...] Read more.

Road transportation is a major contributor to global CO₂ emissions, yet the influence of road geometry on vehicular emissions remains insufficiently quantified under real-world conditions. This study investigates the effects of horizontal and vertical alignments on CO₂ emissions of a light-duty gasoline passenger vehicle using Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS) data collected along a 62.4 km highway section. Six geometric parameters longitudinal grade, cross slope, horizontal curve radius, horizontal curve length, vertical curve radius, and vertical curve length were analyzed in combination with second-by-second vehicle dynamics. The results indicate that transient CO₂ emissions exhibit substantial variability, with instantaneous emission rates exceeding 7.0 g/s under high-load conditions. Longitudinal slope gradient shows the strongest linear association with emission rate (r = 0.63), while speed and acceleration exhibit weaker but statistically significant correlations (r = 0.21 and r = 0.28, respectively). Vehicle Specific Power (VSP), representing integrated tractive power demand, demonstrates stronger association with instantaneous CO₂ emissions than individual kinematic variables. In contrast, cross slope and horizontal curvature parameters display minimal direct correlations under the tested highway conditions. A nonlinear polynomial regression model modestly improves explanatory performance relative to a linear formulation (R² = 0.21 versus 0.15; RMSE approximately 56 g/km), although a substantial portion of variability remains unexplained, reflecting the complexity of transient real-world processes. Overall, vertical alignment and transient driving conditions dominate CO₂ emission variability, while horizontal parameters play supplementary roles. These findings provide empirical evidence for refining emission models and highlight the importance of incorporating vertical alignment into sustainable roadway design and carbon reduction strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Emissions Testing, Modeling, and Lifecycle Assessment)

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23 pages, 7319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Direct and Indirect Effects of Aerosols During the 2023 Canadian Wildfires

by Anning Cheng, Pan Li, Partha S. Bhattacharjee and Fanglin Yang

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040337 - 26 Mar 2026

This modeling study investigates the impact of the 2023 Canadian wildfire aerosols (primarily black carbon and organic aerosol) on weather forecasts, concluding that incorporating real-time aerosol forcing improves model performance over using climatology. Experiments without real-time data severely underestimated aerosol optical depth (AOD), [...] Read more.

This modeling study investigates the impact of the 2023 Canadian wildfire aerosols (primarily black carbon and organic aerosol) on weather forecasts, concluding that incorporating real-time aerosol forcing improves model performance over using climatology. Experiments without real-time data severely underestimated aerosol optical depth (AOD), an error mitigated by including the forcing or using the coupled atmosphere–chemistry model. The aerosols exerted a strong direct radiative effect, reducing surface downward shortwave (SW) flux and generating corresponding surface cooling over the wildfire region. Furthermore, including aerosol–cloud interactions amplified this cooling and led to an increase in the overall cloud fraction and precipitation, illustrating complex indirect effects. While these physical improvements enhanced the representation of the atmosphere, the positive impact on overall medium-range forecasting performance (5–10 days) was modest, suggesting that the benefits of accurately representing wildfire feedback on the coupled Earth system are achieved through relatively slow processes, such as radiation feedback. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions Among Aerosols, Clouds, and Radiation)

11 pages, 707 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nicotine in Fine Particles in Shanghai: Temporal Variations and Influencing Factors

by Jialiang Feng, Yinggao Deng, Zhijie Zhou, Zhuowei Xie, Min Hu and Shunyao Wang

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040336 - 26 Mar 2026

To investigate the temporal and spatial variations in smoking activities in Shanghai, atmospheric fine particles (aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm) were collected at four sites in different functional zones, a central urban site (XJH), an urban site (PD), a suburban site (BS), and [...] Read more.

To investigate the temporal and spatial variations in smoking activities in Shanghai, atmospheric fine particles (aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm) were collected at four sites in different functional zones, a central urban site (XJH), an urban site (PD), a suburban site (BS), and a rural site (QP), between 2012 and 2020 with the concentration of nicotine measured by GC-MS. The results showed that smoking activities in Shanghai decreased significantly from 2012 to 2020. The average concentration of nicotine in fine particles at XJH (2012–2013) was 13.86 ng m⁻³, while it was 3.39 ng m⁻³ at BS (2017–2018), and 1.13 ng m⁻³ and 0.58 ng m⁻³ at PD and QP during 2018–2020. Nicotine concentration in Shanghai showed strong spatial variability but generally followed a seasonal trend of high in winter and low in summer. At XJH and BS, where higher nicotine concentrations were detected, positive correlations between nicotine and organic carbon in fine particles were observed, but not at PD and QP. A negative correlation between nicotine and ozone was found at QP, suggesting the influence of transported nicotine at the rural site. In general, the concentration of nicotine in atmospheric fine particles is primarily governed by local smoking activities, but is also influenced by meteorological conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Aerosols: How Are They Emitted, Generated, Transported, Aged, and Deposited?)

25 pages, 5667 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning Calibration Transfer for Low-Cost Air Quality Sensors: Distance-Based Uncertainty Quantification in a Hybrid Urban Monitoring Network

by Petar Zhivkov and Stefka Fidanova

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040335 - 26 Mar 2026

Low-cost air quality sensors enable dense urban monitoring networks but require calibration against reference-grade instruments. While machine learning calibration is well-established for co-located sensor pairs, applying these calibrations to sensors deployed far from any reference station—the operational reality for most network sensors—lacks systematic [...] Read more.

Low-cost air quality sensors enable dense urban monitoring networks but require calibration against reference-grade instruments. While machine learning calibration is well-established for co-located sensor pairs, applying these calibrations to sensors deployed far from any reference station—the operational reality for most network sensors—lacks systematic methodology. We address this gap using 24 months of hourly data (August 2023–July 2025) from Sofia, Bulgaria, where five official reference stations (Executive Environmental Agency) operate alongside 22 AirThings low-cost sensors, four of which are co-located. Random Forest models achieved

R^{2} \in (0.53, 0.75)

across PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, and O₃, representing from 40% (for O₃) to 408% (for PM_2.5) improvement over Multiple Linear Regression baselines. Using leave-one-station-out spatial cross-validation, we derived pollutant-specific uncertainty growth rates (

α

) from 3.84% to 5.62% per km, characterizing how calibration uncertainty increases with distance from reference stations (statistically significant for PM₁₀ and O₃,

p < 0.05

). Applied to 18 non-co-located sensors, the framework generated 1.2 million calibrated hourly measurements with 95% prediction intervals over the study period. Co-location sites spaced 6 km apart achieve a less than 30% uncertainty increase at network midpoints, within EU Air Quality Directive thresholds for indicative monitoring. These empirically derived

α

parameters enable network planners to predict measurement reliability at arbitrary sensor locations without ground-truth validation, providing evidence-based guidance for cost-effective hybrid monitoring network design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies for Observation of Air Pollution (2nd Edition))

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21 pages, 8535 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variability in the Particulate Matter Removal Efficiency of Different Urban Plant Communities: A Case Study

by Yan Gui and Likai Lin

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040334 (registering DOI) - 25 Mar 2026

Driven by rapid global urbanization and expanding urban footprints, air pollution, particularly from industrial emissions and vehicular exhaust, has intensified, with rising concentrations of inhalable particulate matter (PM) posing direct threats to public health. To address this challenge, we conducted field measurements of [...] Read more.

Driven by rapid global urbanization and expanding urban footprints, air pollution, particularly from industrial emissions and vehicular exhaust, has intensified, with rising concentrations of inhalable particulate matter (PM) posing direct threats to public health. To address this challenge, we conducted field measurements of ambient PM concentrations across diverse urban plant communities and quantitatively compared their capacity to mitigate four key size-fractionated pollutants: total suspended particles (TSPs), PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁. Our objective was to identify the most effective plant community type for PM abatement in urban settings. Results demonstrate that: (1) evergreen broad-leaved forests exhibit the highest overall PM removal efficiency among all studied communities; (2) removal efficacy declines markedly with decreasing particle size, indicating limited capacity to capture ultrafine particles (e.g., PM₁); and (3) seasonal performance peaks in summer, especially for deciduous broad-leaved forests attributable to maximal leaf area index, enhanced stomatal activity, and favorable meteorological conditions. By rigorously evaluating species composition, canopy structure, and seasonal dynamics, this study provides empirically grounded guidance for evidence-based urban greening strategies aimed at optimizing airborne particulate mitigation worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution Control)

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24 pages, 8999 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Methodology for Assessing Wind Power Curtailment Using Anemometric Measurements and Operational Data in the Brazilian Context

by Paulo Nascimento, William Cossich, Lais Araujo, Isabela Santos, Kevin Almeida and André Marcato

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040333 - 25 Mar 2026

The increasing share of wind power generation has intensified the occurrence of curtailment events in power systems worldwide, mainly driven by transmission constraints, operational limitations, and imbalances between generation and demand. In the Brazilian context, this phenomenon has become more pronounced since 2023, [...] Read more.

The increasing share of wind power generation has intensified the occurrence of curtailment events in power systems worldwide, mainly driven by transmission constraints, operational limitations, and imbalances between generation and demand. In the Brazilian context, this phenomenon has become more pronounced since 2023, highlighting structural challenges of the Brazilian Interconnected Power System and the need for reliable methodologies to estimate curtailed wind generation. This study presents a methodology to estimate wind power potential during curtailment events, aiming to support forecasting models and the economic compensation of affected generating agents. The proposed approach integrates measured power generation data, technical information of wind farms, and anemometric measurements from SCADA systems, combining data filtering and consistency procedures, gap-filling based on spatial correlation among wind farms, and regression models supported by statistical and computational techniques for wind-to-power conversion. The methodology was applied to more than 1000 wind farms connected to the Brazilian transmission grid and achieved accuracy levels above 95% on a semi-hourly basis and exceeding 99% for annual aggregations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Modelling and Management of Environment, Energy and Resources: Methods, Applications, and Challenges)

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17 pages, 2186 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Estimate of Sulfur Isotope Fractionation Due to SO₂ Self-Shielding in the Upper Atmosphere of Venus

by James R. Lyons

Atmosphere 2026, 17(4), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17040332 - 24 Mar 2026

Sulfur dioxide is a trace constituent of the upper atmosphere of Venus but plays a dominant role in the photochemistry above the cloud tops. Because SO₂ undergoes indirect dissociation to a relatively long-lived excited state, it has a line-type absorption spectrum in [...] Read more.

Sulfur dioxide is a trace constituent of the upper atmosphere of Venus but plays a dominant role in the photochemistry above the cloud tops. Because SO₂ undergoes indirect dissociation to a relatively long-lived excited state, it has a line-type absorption spectrum in the dissociation region (~190–220 nm). This leads to strong isotopic fractionation under optically thick conditions, a process referred to as self-shielding. Here, I use SO₂ cross-sections, shielding functions, and a simple steady-state photochemical model to estimate sulfur isotope ratios in SO₂. The results indicate that large isotope depletion relative to SO₂ in the deep atmosphere is expected in SO₂ below 70 km altitude, with δ³⁴S ~ −100 to −200 permil. This is readily detectable by the VTLS tunable laser spectrometer planned for the NASA DAVINCI mission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Planetary Atmospheres)

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16 pages, 3682 KB

Open AccessArticle

Horizontally Inhomogeneous Ionospheric Refraction Correction for Ground-Based Radar

by Yunfei Zhu, Zhen Dong and Yifei Ji

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030331 - 23 Mar 2026

Atmospheric refraction often influences the localization accuracy of ground-based radar for detecting space targets. Traditional methods generally utilize the measured troposphere and ionosphere data from the local station for atmospheric refraction correction and thus neglect the influence of atmospheric horizontal inhomogeneity. However, in [...] Read more.

Atmospheric refraction often influences the localization accuracy of ground-based radar for detecting space targets. Traditional methods generally utilize the measured troposphere and ionosphere data from the local station for atmospheric refraction correction and thus neglect the influence of atmospheric horizontal inhomogeneity. However, in practice, a horizontally inhomogeneous ionosphere often causes considerable residual errors in the measured range and elevation angle after refraction correction, especially for targets with low elevation angles. The ionospheric electron density profile along the wave propagation path is significantly different from that in the vertical direction of the local station, which further brings about challenges in the modeling and correction of atmospheric refraction errors. To address the above challenge, the effect of a horizontally inhomogeneous ionosphere on the range and elevation angle measured by ground-based radar is analyzed, and a geographic division modeling strategy for the ionospheric electron density along the propagation path for atmospheric refraction correction is proposed in this paper. The simulation results show that the oblique electron density distribution obtained from the proposed model agrees well with the results calculated by the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model, and the proposed methodology effectively suppresses residual errors in radar atmospheric refraction correction in the low-elevation detection case. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radar Sensing Atmosphere: Modelling, Imaging and Prediction (2nd Edition))

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22 pages, 13824 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of Intensifying Extreme Precipitation in China During the 21st Century and Its Asymmetric Climate Response

by Zhansheng Li and Dapeng Gong

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030330 - 23 Mar 2026

Extreme precipitation events are projected to change under climate change in terms of frequency, intensity and duration, which would cause serious impacts on water resources, agriculture, urban systems and socioeconomic conditions in the future. Based on 10 CMIP5 simulations statistically downscaled to 0.25° [...] Read more.

Extreme precipitation events are projected to change under climate change in terms of frequency, intensity and duration, which would cause serious impacts on water resources, agriculture, urban systems and socioeconomic conditions in the future. Based on 10 CMIP5 simulations statistically downscaled to 0.25° resolution through the NASA Earth Exchange Global Daily Downscaled Projections (NEX-GDDP) initiative, seven precipitation climate extreme indices, as well as the probability ratio (PR) calculated by the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) model for daily precipitation, were analyzed under scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. The results show that: (1) Annual precipitation is projected to increase significantly across China during the 21st century. The increasing rates are 1.4%/decade under RCP4.5 and 2.9%/decade under RCP8.5, respectively. The Tibetan Plateau exhibits the largest increase, particularly over the Karakoram Mountain area. Precipitation will also significantly increase in winter (13.59%/decade and 16.40%/decade) and spring (4.30%/decade and 6.33%/decade). (2) Precipitation extremes are projected to intensify markedly across China, with pronounced intensification in Southwest China and the Tibetan Plateau. (3) The more extreme the precipitation events, the greater the projected increase in the probability ratio (PR). It should be noted that the magnitude of the PR increase under RCP4.5 is significantly larger with respect to RCP8.5. These findings enhance the understanding of climate change and provide detailed regional-scale information to support adaptive policy-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)

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24 pages, 1461 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Temperature and Water Vapor Profiles Retrieved from FORUM and IASI-NG Measurements

by Elisa Butali, Simone Ceccherini, Cecilia Tirelli, Gabriele Poli, Ugo Cortesi, Samantha Melani, Luca Rovai and Alberto Ortolani

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030329 - 23 Mar 2026

To advance our understanding of atmospheric processes and climate dynamics, improved knowledge of outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) spectral emission is essential. The FORUM mission, selected for the ninth cycle of the European Space Agency’s Earth Explorer programme, is specifically designed to address the [...] Read more.

To advance our understanding of atmospheric processes and climate dynamics, improved knowledge of outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) spectral emission is essential. The FORUM mission, selected for the ninth cycle of the European Space Agency’s Earth Explorer programme, is specifically designed to address the long-standing observational gap in the far-infrared (FIR) spectral region. When combined with measurements from the IASI-NG instrument, FORUM will provide complete spectral coverage of Earth’s OLR emission (spanning 100 to 2760 cm⁻¹ wavenumber, or 3.62 to 100 μm wavelength), thereby enabling robust climate model validation and enhanced understanding of climate change processes. While IASI-NG’s primary mission is to support numerical weather prediction, FORUM is designed to measure key climate variables, which also enable the retrieval of atmospheric parameters in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. In this study, we assess the information content of FORUM and IASI-NG measurements for atmospheric profiling through a simulation-based approach. Synthetic retrieval products are generated using a linearized formulation of the retrieval transfer function, allowing an efficient and physically consistent evaluation of the sensitivity of the two instruments to atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiles. The analysis reveals a non-negligible sensitivity of FORUM to atmospheric temperature extending into the stratosphere, resulting in significant information content at altitudes higher than previously reported. This finding highlights the potential of far-infrared observations to contribute to atmospheric temperature profiling beyond the lower troposphere. The complementary capabilities of FORUM and IASI-NG suggest that their combined use can enhance the characterization of the atmospheric thermal structure. These results represent a first step toward evaluating the potential role of FORUM Level-2 products in future numerical weather prediction applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)

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19 pages, 2458 KB

Open AccessArticle

Concentrations and Health Risk Assessment of Ambient PM_2.5-Bound Elements in Windsor, Ontario, Canada

by Tianchu Zhang, Yushan Su, James Gilmore, Jerzy Debosz, Michael Noble, Anthony Munoz, Chris Charron and Xiaohong Xu

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030328 - 23 Mar 2026

Hourly concentrations of PM_2.5-bound elements were continuously monitored in Windsor, Canada, from April 2021 to April 2023. Health risk assessment methods of the USEPA were utilized to quantify lifetime cumulative cancer risks (CRs) using six PM_2.5-bound elements, and chronic [...] Read more.

Hourly concentrations of PM_2.5-bound elements were continuously monitored in Windsor, Canada, from April 2021 to April 2023. Health risk assessment methods of the USEPA were utilized to quantify lifetime cumulative cancer risks (CRs) using six PM_2.5-bound elements, and chronic non-cancer hazard quotients (HQs) using 11 elements, for each season, each source factor, and each hour of day. The two-year average PM_2.5 mass concentration was 9.2 μg/m³, slightly exceeding Ontario’s Ambient Air Quality Criteria of 8.8 μg/m³. A discernible diurnal concentration pattern was noted for most elements, peaking during morning rush hours and tapering during the daytime, largely attributed to local human activities and changes in atmospheric mixing heights. Despite this, both the total lifetime cumulative CR (4.1 × 10⁻⁵) and non-cancer total HQ (0.82) from exposure to ambient elements remained below the corresponding USEPA-acceptable levels. The seasonal variation in CRs and HQs was minimal. However, the diurnal variation was strong, with higher risks during morning rush hours (6:00–8:00) when traffic volume peaks, and lower risks during the daytime (12:00–20:00) when atmospheric mixing height is enhanced. Metal processing emerged as the most significant contributor to the total CR (52%) and HQ (60%), followed by coal/heavy oil burning (19% and 16%, respectively), and vehicular exhaust (19% and 12%, respectively). The remaining two source factors accounted for 10% of CR and 12% of HQ. Cd (62%) was the largest contributor to CRs, followed by Cr(VI) (25%), Co (6%), As (5%), Ni (2%), and Pb (<0.1%). Similarly, Cd dominated HQs (73%), followed by Mn (11%), Ni (6.3%), with the remaining eight elements collectively contributing 9.7%. Although levels of CRs and HQs are low, efforts to mitigate ambient Cd emissions from metal processing sources will help reduce exposure and protect the environment and human health, given Cd is the primary contributor to the total CR and HQ during the study period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Health Risks and Mitigation Strategies)

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34 pages, 8747 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emergent Constraint on the Projection of Compound Dry and Hot Events in Guangdong Province by CMIP6 Models

by Liying Peng, Hui Yang, Yu Zhang, Quancheng Hao, Jingqi Miao and Feng Xu

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030327 - 22 Mar 2026

In the context of global warming, compound dry-hot events (CDHEs) are intensifying in Guangdong, yet CMIP6 projections remain uncertain. This study employs CMIP6 data and the Standardized Compound Event Indicator (SCEI) to quantify CDHEs severity, applying an observational constraint approach to reduce inter-model [...] Read more.

In the context of global warming, compound dry-hot events (CDHEs) are intensifying in Guangdong, yet CMIP6 projections remain uncertain. This study employs CMIP6 data and the Standardized Compound Event Indicator (SCEI) to quantify CDHEs severity, applying an observational constraint approach to reduce inter-model uncertainty. The results show that, after observational constraint, uncertainties decrease by about 63% and 77% in Period I and II under SSP126 and by about 57% and 59% under SSP585, greatly improving projection robustness. CDHE risk is highest in SSP585-Period II. Future dry-hot intensification in Guangdong generally increases from north to south, with western Guangdong most strongly affected. Although CDHEs weaken in other periods, western Guangdong shows persistent aggravation. Mechanism analyses indicate that SSP585-Period I is mainly linked to cold sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the South Atlantic and waters near Australia. After correction, dry-hot conditions show a marked weakening across Guangdong, although slight intensification persists over the Leizhou Peninsula. SSP585-Period II is primarily influenced by warm SST anomalies in the eastern Pacific and South Atlantic and cold anomalies in the North Pacific. The two SSP126 periods are associated with warm SST anomalies in the South Atlantic and waters near Australia and with cold anomalies in the South Atlantic, North Pacific, and North Atlantic, respectively. After correction, CDHEs generally weaken across Guangdong, although southern and south-central areas remain relatively severe. These findings indicate that historical key SST biases can strongly influence future CDHEs projections in Guangdong by modulating large-scale atmospheric circulation, including the Pacific-South American wave train, Indian Ocean SST anomalies, and the Western North Pacific Subtropical Anticyclone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)

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28 pages, 5437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Trend Analysis of Heat Waves and Cold Spells in Major Turkish Cities Under Climate Change

by Ebrar Öztürk, Gökay Bayram, Veli Yavuz, Yiğitalp Kara, Caner Temiz and Anthony R. Lupo

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030326 - 22 Mar 2026

This study analyzes heat waves (HWs), cold spells (CSs), and mean temperature trends in Türkiye’s three major metropolises (Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir) using long-term station data. HW and CS events were defined via a percentile-based threshold approach, utilizing daily maximum (T_max) [...] Read more.

This study analyzes heat waves (HWs), cold spells (CSs), and mean temperature trends in Türkiye’s three major metropolises (Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir) using long-term station data. HW and CS events were defined via a percentile-based threshold approach, utilizing daily maximum (T_max) and minimum (T_min) temperature data from a total of 15 meteorological stations. Temporal trends in annual and seasonal wave frequencies, alongside mean temperature series, were evaluated using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator. The findings indicate that HW frequencies have significantly increased across the majority of stations, whereas CS frequencies have decreased at most locations. It was determined that while HWs predominantly concentrate in summer and CSs in winter, heat extremes can extend into transitional seasons. Mean temperatures exhibit a statistically significant upward trend across all stations. Furthermore, HWs have become more prominent and CSs have dissipated more rapidly in urban and coastal stations. These results reveal that the risk of heat extremes is escalating while cold extreme events are weakening in Türkiye’s major cities due to warming climate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)

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14 pages, 3184 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vertical Variability and Source Apportionment of Black and Brown Carbon During Urban Seasonal Haze

by Samita Kladin, Parkpoom Choomanee, Surat Bualert, Thunyapat Thongyen, Nattakit Jintauschariya and Wladyslaw W. Szymanski

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030325 - 22 Mar 2026

This study investigates the vertical variation and temporal characteristics and indicates the sources of black carbon (BC) and brown carbon (BrC) within particulate matter fraction PM₁ during light (November–December 2024) and heavy (January–February 2025) haze episodes in Bangkok, Thailand, a topic where [...] Read more.

This study investigates the vertical variation and temporal characteristics and indicates the sources of black carbon (BC) and brown carbon (BrC) within particulate matter fraction PM₁ during light (November–December 2024) and heavy (January–February 2025) haze episodes in Bangkok, Thailand, a topic where data are still limited data regarding Southeast Asian megacities. Continuous measurements were conducted at 30 and 110 m above ground level, together with particle size distribution measurement, micrometeorological observations, and backward air mass trajectory analysis. During the haze periods, the highest particle number concentrations occurred in the 0.3–0.4 µm size range, indicating dominant contributions from combustion-related emissions and secondary aerosol formation. Mean PM₁ mass concentrations during the heavy haze episodes were more than 2.5 times higher than those during light haze. BC concentrations increased substantially during heavy haze, while the BC fraction of PM₁ remained relatively constant (~10%). In contrast, the BrC fraction reached nearly 20%, reflecting an increasing influence of biomass burning emissions associated with regional transport. Combined analyses of BC/BrC relationships, wind-direction dependence, and air mass trajectories demonstrate mixed contributions from local fossil fuel combustion and long-range transport of biomass burning aerosols during severe haze events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality and Health)

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24 pages, 12433 KB

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Atmospheric Loss of Energetic Electrons and Protons from the Radiation Belts After the Exceptional Injection of the 11 May 2024 Superstorm Leading to Four Electron Belts

by Viviane Pierrard and Alexandre Winant

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030324 - 22 Mar 2026

The exceptionally strong geomagnetic storm of 10–11 May 2024 injected new energetic protons and electrons into the terrestrial radiation belts, creating extraordinary conditions to study the loss mechanisms scattering these particles into the atmosphere after the storm. For the first time, four electron [...] Read more.

The exceptionally strong geomagnetic storm of 10–11 May 2024 injected new energetic protons and electrons into the terrestrial radiation belts, creating extraordinary conditions to study the loss mechanisms scattering these particles into the atmosphere after the storm. For the first time, four electron belts were observed during several weeks. We show that this structure was due to electron loss, highly dependent on specific positions. Using the proton and electron fluxes measured by the Energetic Particle Telescope, EPT, on board PROBA-V, we determine the lifetimes of these populations depending on their energy ranges and positions. We show that the lifetimes are much longer for protons than for electrons, which enables us to determine their time variations independently. For electrons, the wave–particle loss mechanisms depend on the background ionosphere–plasmasphere density. The lifetimes determined after the May 2024 and 10 October 2024 big events are compared with average ones to understand their unusual specificity for the formation of four and three belts, respectively. For the injected protons of 9.5 to 13 MeV, the lifetime is minimum at L~1.9, where the fluxes are maximum, showing a lifetime depending on the flux intensity. Loss is due to pitch angle diffusion and collisions with electrons and nuclei in the ambient plasma and neutral atmosphere. At the outer edge of the proton belt, the flux is depleted at all energies after the geomagnetic perturbation, and we determine that the progressive time of refilling after the storm generally reaches more than 40 days. There is an excellent discrimination between the different populations of energetic electrons (0.5–8 MeV) and the injected protons (9.5–13 MeV) that are still observed several months after the event. Such results contribute to advancing understanding of the interactions between the terrestrial atmosphere and space radiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Observation and Simulation Studies of Ionosphere)

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20 pages, 85988 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vertical Structure and Dynamical Regimes of Mediterranean Tropical-like Cyclones from High-Resolution WRF Simulations

by Christian Natale Gencarelli and Francesco Carbone

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030323 - 21 Mar 2026

Mediterranean tropical-like cyclones (MTLCs), commonly referred to as Medicanes, are high-impact weather systems characterized by complex interactions between baroclinic forcing and tropical-like processes. Despite growing interest, their vertical structures and dynamical regimes remain incompletely understood. In this study, high-resolution Weather Research and Forecasting [...] Read more.

Mediterranean tropical-like cyclones (MTLCs), commonly referred to as Medicanes, are high-impact weather systems characterized by complex interactions between baroclinic forcing and tropical-like processes. Despite growing interest, their vertical structures and dynamical regimes remain incompletely understood. In this study, high-resolution Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) simulations at 1 km resolution are used to investigate the structure and evolution of two dynamically contrasting MTLCs: Ianos (2020) and Qendresa (2014). The analysis focuses on the temporal evolution of kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation as well as on the three-dimensional organization of wind and temperature fields during representative phases of the cyclone life cycle. The results reveal pronounced differences between the two events, with Ianos exhibiting a compact, vertically coherent, convection-dominated structure and Qendresa showing a wider, more asymmetric, and less stationary organization influenced by baroclinic processes. A comparative framework with the ERA5 reanalysis is employed to contextualize cyclone intensity, with ERA5 used as a dynamically consistent large-scale reference rather than as an observational benchmark. Overall, the study highlights the importance of vertical structure and boundary-layer processes in shaping Mediterranean tropical-like cyclones and demonstrates the added value of high-resolution numerical simulations for distinguishing between different dynamical regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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18 pages, 855 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Emergency Room Visits for Respiratory Diseases and Exposure to Zip Code-Level Criteria Air Pollutants in New York State

by Tamba S. Lebbie, Laura E. Jones, Najm Alsadat Madani and David O. Carpenter

Atmosphere 2026, 17(3), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17030322 - 20 Mar 2026

We assess associations between emergency room (ER) visits, scaled to per 10⁵ population per year, for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), two of the most common respiratory diseases, and zip code-level exposure to criteria air pollutants (CAPs) coming from point [...] Read more.

We assess associations between emergency room (ER) visits, scaled to per 10⁵ population per year, for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), two of the most common respiratory diseases, and zip code-level exposure to criteria air pollutants (CAPs) coming from point sources in New York State (NYS) from 2010 to 2018. Exposure data on point source CAPs were retrieved from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) National Emission Inventory (NEI) database, and ER visits for asthma and COPD were acquired from the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System (SPARCS). To account for within-county variability, we used log-linear mixed effects models, adjusted for year, sex, age category, county-level poverty, smoking, PM_2.5, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and CAPs sources within the study period. Results show significant associations between ER visits for asthma and COPD and most of the pollutants in the study, even after adjusting for the effects of poverty and smoking. Although point source emissions comprise a small portion of total air pollution, our findings show that zip code-level point source CAPs, especially the gaseous pollutants, pose a modest but significant contribution to the risk of respiratory disease-related ER visits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Composition Analysis and Health Effects of Atmospheric Particulate Matter (2nd Edition))

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