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Hybrid Design Optimization Methodology for Electromechanical Linear Actuators in Automotive LED Headlights
Autonomous Driving in Agricultural Machinery: Advancing the Frontier of Precision Agriculture

Journal Description

Actuators

Actuators is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the science and technology of actuators and control systems, published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within SCIE (Web of Science), Scopus, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Mechanical) / CiteScore - Q1 (Control and Optimization)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 1.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Journal Cluster of Instruments and Instrumentation: Actuators, AI Sensors, Instruments, Micromachines and Sensors.

Impact Factor: 2.3 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2076-0825

Latest Articles

24 pages, 2035 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Fine-Grained Access Control Method for Control Instructions of the Industrial Control Network

by Jingpei Wang, Ming Zhu, Kai Zhang and Xin Che

Actuators 2026, 15(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010005 (registering DOI) - 21 Dec 2025

The control instructions of industrial control systems are prone to threats such as unauthorized access and tampering during transmission and interaction, and access control is a fundamental method to protect data security. Due to the cyber-physical integration and availability constraints in industrial control [...] Read more.

The control instructions of industrial control systems are prone to threats such as unauthorized access and tampering during transmission and interaction, and access control is a fundamental method to protect data security. Due to the cyber-physical integration and availability constraints in industrial control systems, existing access control methods cannot be directly applied. In this paper, we propose an access control policy for control instructions based on the ciphertext policy attribute-based encryption (CP-ABE) under the availability constraints in industrial control systems. First, we analyze the abnormal behaviors of control instructions in process industrial monitoring systems, and model the attributes associated with field control business and integrate them into CP-ABE to achieve fine-grained access control and avoid non-compliant operations. Second, we adopt a trusted computing mechanism to protect the identity trustworthiness of the transmission node; the confidentiality of the transmitted control instruction is guaranteed by the negotiated symmetric key and the key authorization is realized by the CP-ABE. We further optimize the measuring frequency of the trusted measurement and the deployment policy of the access control method to guarantee business availability. Finally, we conduct formal analysis and experimental validation of the proposed method, and the results show that the proposed access control policy can prevent unauthorized access and non-compliant tampering by industrial control devices and achieve trustworthy delivery of control instructions with controlled computational complexity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Control Systems)

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35 pages, 5109 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Modeling, and Experimental Study of a Constant-Force Floating Compensator for a Grinding Robot

by Yapeng Xu, Keke Zhang, Kai Guo, Wuyi Ming, Jun Ma, Shoufang Wang and Yuanpeng Ye

Actuators 2026, 15(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010004 (registering DOI) - 21 Dec 2025

Robot grinding requires a constant interaction force between the tool and the workpiece, even under inclination changes. This paper proposes a compact single-axis pneumatic constant-force floating compensator (CFFC) to achieve constant force output. The proportional pressure valve and pressure sensor are used to [...] Read more.

Robot grinding requires a constant interaction force between the tool and the workpiece, even under inclination changes. This paper proposes a compact single-axis pneumatic constant-force floating compensator (CFFC) to achieve constant force output. The proportional pressure valve and pressure sensor are used to regulate the cylinder’s pressure. Pneumatic components and sensors are integrated into the narrow space between the cylinder and the slide rail. Embedded controller, power, and communication modules are developed and integrated into a control box and interact with the operator by a touch screen. The mathematical models of the compensator are established and the stability and response dynamics are analyzed through transfer functions. A dual-loop force controller based on active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) is designed to address bias load, inclination change, friction, and the sealing cover spring effect. The outer loop is compensated by displacement, tilt, and pressure sensors, and the unmodeled dynamics are estimated by an extended state observer (ESO) and a recursive least square (RLS). Finally, the CFFC is installed on a testing platform to simulate grinding conditions. The experimental results show that even under large floating stroke, inclination changes, and biased load, the CFFC can still quickly and stably output the desired grinding force. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial and Biomechanical Applications of Actuators and Robots and Eco-Sustainability)

21 pages, 2780 KB

Open AccessArticle

Extenics Coordinated Torque Distribution Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Considering Stability and Energy Efficiency

by Liang Wang, Qiuxia Shu, Dashuang Zhou and Yan Ti

Actuators 2026, 15(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010003 (registering DOI) - 19 Dec 2025

To address the challenges of enhancing driving stability and energy efficiency in distributed-drive electric vehicles, this paper proposes an extenics coordinated torque distribution control method that integrates energy efficiency optimization and vehicle stability. The primary contribution was the development of a vehicle stability [...] Read more.

To address the challenges of enhancing driving stability and energy efficiency in distributed-drive electric vehicles, this paper proposes an extenics coordinated torque distribution control method that integrates energy efficiency optimization and vehicle stability. The primary contribution was the development of a vehicle stability assessment method grounded in extenics control theory, which was used to obtain the vehicle’s phase plane and stability region. Subsequently, an objective function with constraints for in-wheel motor torque distribution was formulated, targeting both optimal energy efficiency and maximum tire stability margin. Furthermore, the extension distances from the actual vehicle state to the stability boundaries were computed to determine adaptive weighting coefficients for these dual objectives. Finally, a Matlab/Simulink 2018a and Carsim2019 co-simulation platform was built to implement and test the proposed method. Simulations under the NEDC urban driving cycle and double-lane-change driving conditions were conducted to evaluate the following three distribution strategies: energy-optimal, stability-oriented, and extenics coordinated control. The results demonstrated that, regarding vehicle stability performance, extenics coordinated control showed a slightly inferior performance to the stability-oriented approach but substantially outperformed the energy-optimal strategy. In terms of energy consumption, the energy-optimal strategy achieved the lowest loss and the stability-oriented strategy showed the highest, while the extenics coordinated control presented intermediate results of 5.4 × 10⁹ J and 9.7 × 10⁷ J, respectively, under two driving conditions, representing reductions of 2.17% and 11.2% compared to the stability-oriented method. The proposed torque distribution method establishes an effective balance between energy-optimal and stability-oriented objectives. This method not only ensures satisfactory driving stability, but also reduces energy loss in in-wheel motors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Actuation and Control Technologies for Vehicle Driving Systems—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1596 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bridging Regimes: A State-Dependent Blending Methodology for Parsimonious and Robust Heavy Vehicle Dynamics Modeling

by Ozgur Unsal and Hakan Yavuz

Actuators 2026, 15(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010002 - 19 Dec 2025

Data-driven gray-box models for vehicle control often fail to generalize across distinct physical regimes. This study tackles the critical, yet often-overlooked, challenge of robustly blending model parameters between these regimes. The vehicle’s “expert poles” are defined using physically distinct maneuvers (steady state vs. [...] Read more.

Data-driven gray-box models for vehicle control often fail to generalize across distinct physical regimes. This study tackles the critical, yet often-overlooked, challenge of robustly blending model parameters between these regimes. The vehicle’s “expert poles” are defined using physically distinct maneuvers (steady state vs. transient). A three-way benchmark is used to prove that the blending method is more critical than the concept itself. Three architectures are compared: (1) a baseline single-parameter “Static Model”, (2) a common literature “Heuristic Model” that blends using lateral acceleration ( Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Driven Control for Vehicle Dynamics)

13 pages, 2061 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid Piezoelectric and Photovoltaic Energy Harvester for Power Line Monitoring

by Giacomo Clementi, Luca Tinti, Luca Castellini, Mario Costanza, Igor Neri, Francesco Cottone and Luca Gammaitoni

Actuators 2026, 15(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/act15010001 - 19 Dec 2025

Monitoring the health of power lines (PL) is essential for ensuring reliable power delivery, facilitating predictive maintenance, and maintaining a resilient grid infrastructure. Given the extensive length of PL networks, large numbers of wireless sensor nodes must be deployed, often in remote and [...] Read more.

Monitoring the health of power lines (PL) is essential for ensuring reliable power delivery, facilitating predictive maintenance, and maintaining a resilient grid infrastructure. Given the extensive length of PL networks, large numbers of wireless sensor nodes must be deployed, often in remote and harsh environments where battery replacement is costly and impractical. To address these limitations, this work proposes a hybrid energy-harvesting approach that combines piezoelectric and photovoltaic (PV) technologies to enable long-term, battery-free PL monitoring. The primary energy source is a compact, tunable, magnetically coupled piezoelectric vibrational energy harvester (VEH) that exploits local magnetic field distribution, inducing mechanical excitation of a cantilever and enabling the harvesting of vibrational energy near the PL at a frequency of 50 Hz. A complementary PV harvester is integrated to ensure operation during power outages or conditions where the piezoelectric excitation is reduced, thereby enhancing system robustness. Electromechanical characterization and a lumped-parameter model show good agreement with experimental results of the proposed VEH. The system is validated both on a PL test bench (5 A–10 A) and through inertial excitation using an electrodynamic shaker, demonstrating stable performance across a wide range of operating conditions. The combined hybrid architecture highlights a promising pathway toward self-sustaining, maintenance-free sensor nodes for next-generation power line monitoring. Finally, we demonstrate the feasibility of using such system for powering a WSN node by comparing the power produced by the proposed system with the power consumption of a potential application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative MEMS: Merging Smart Materials with Electronic Techniques for Enhanced Sensing and Actuation)

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24 pages, 11163 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Implementation of a Quick-Change End-Effector Control System for Lightweight Robotic Arms in Workpiece Assembly Applications

by Guangxin Luan, Lingyan Hu and Raofen Wang

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120619 - 18 Dec 2025

This paper presents a lightweight end-effector quick-change control system for robotic arms, designed for scenarios such as workpiece assembly that require rapid switching between multiple end-effectors. The system utilizes a proprietary quick-change mechanism as its hardware foundation. Its main disk employs a modular [...] Read more.

This paper presents a lightweight end-effector quick-change control system for robotic arms, designed for scenarios such as workpiece assembly that require rapid switching between multiple end-effectors. The system utilizes a proprietary quick-change mechanism as its hardware foundation. Its main disk employs a modular and lightweight design compatible with small collaborative robots like the UR3. Motor-driven claws enable automatic tool locking and unlocking. To unify control interfaces for heterogeneous motor-driven tools, this paper proposes a universal peripheral adapter circuit based on the RS485 bus and a tool ID recognition mechanism, establishing a standardized four-wire interface for multi-tool sharing. At the control level, embedded control programs were developed for both the quick-change device and the tool end. An upper-level control platform based on ROS and MoveIt was established to achieve automatic quick-change and task sequence control during typical robotic operations such as “drilling-assembly workpiece.” Statistics from 20 locking time and communication success rate tests, along with 30 complete assembly experiments, demonstrate that the average quick-change locking time is 1.81 s, communication success rate is 100%, and a 93.3% assembly process success rate. These results validate the feasibility and stability of the proposed lightweight robotic arm end-effector quick-change control system in workpiece assembly scenarios, providing an expandable and reproducible quick-change control solution for multi-task operations of lightweight robotic arms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)

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16 pages, 2902 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Backstepping Control for Battery Pole Strip Mill Systems with Friction and Dead-Zone Input Nonlinearities

by Gengting Qiu, Yujie Hao, Gexin Chen, Guishan Yan and Yao Chen

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120618 - 17 Dec 2025

The dead-zone input and hydraulic cylinder friction of the pump-controlled automatic gauge control (AGC) system introduce significant challenges to the high-precision rolling of lithium battery pole pieces. To address these nonlinearities, this paper establishes the friction and dead-zone model of the pump-controlled AGC [...] Read more.

The dead-zone input and hydraulic cylinder friction of the pump-controlled automatic gauge control (AGC) system introduce significant challenges to the high-precision rolling of lithium battery pole pieces. To address these nonlinearities, this paper establishes the friction and dead-zone model of the pump-controlled AGC system, and a slide-mode observer is designed to estimate the friction state z in the LuGre model. Furthermore, an adaptive compensation method is adopted to identify the unknown parameters of the input dead-zone and friction models. Meanwhile, combined with the framework of backstepping control design, both matched and mismatched disturbances are effectively compensated. Stability analysis guarantees the convergence of the estimation errors and closed-loop signal boundedness. Finally, experimental results validate the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed control strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Control of Electromechanical Servo System Based on Motor/Hydraulic Actuator)

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18 pages, 2222 KB

Open AccessArticle

Model-Free Multi-Parameter Optimization Control for Electro-Hydraulic Servo Actuators with Time Delay Compensation

by Haiwu Zheng, Hao Xiong, Dingxuan Zhao, Yinying Ren, Shuoshuo Cao, Ziqi Huang, Zeguang Hu, Zhuangding Zhou, Liqiang Zhao and Liangpeng Li

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120617 - 17 Dec 2025

System time delays and nonlinear unmodeled dynamics severely constrain the control performance of the Active Suspension Electro-Hydraulic Servo Actuator (ASEHSA). To tackle these challenges, this paper presents a Dynamic Error Differentiation-based Model-Free Adaptive Control (DE-MFAC) strategy integrated with an Improved Particle Swarm Optimization [...] Read more.

System time delays and nonlinear unmodeled dynamics severely constrain the control performance of the Active Suspension Electro-Hydraulic Servo Actuator (ASEHSA). To tackle these challenges, this paper presents a Dynamic Error Differentiation-based Model-Free Adaptive Control (DE-MFAC) strategy integrated with an Improved Particle Swarm Optimization (IPSO) algorithm. Established under the Model-Free Adaptive Control (MFAC) framework, the DE-MFAC integrates a dynamic error differentiation mechanism and an implicit expression of time delays, thus removing the dependence on a precise system model. The traditional PSO algorithm is improved by incorporating an inertia weight adjustment strategy and a boundary reflection wall strategy, which effectively mitigates the issues of local optima and boundary stagnation. In AMESim 2021, a 1/4 vehicle active suspension electro-hydraulic actuation system model is constructed. To ensure an impartial evaluation of controller performance, the IPSO algorithm is employed to optimize the parameters of the PID, MFAC, and DE-MFAC controllers, respectively. Co-simulations with Simulink 2023b are conducted under two time delay scenarios using a composite square-sine wave signal as the reference. The results indicate that all three IPSO-optimized controllers realize effective position tracking. Among them, the DE-MFAC controller exhibits the optimal performance, demonstrating remarkable advantages in reducing tracking errors and balancing settling time with overshoot. These findings verify the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy, time delay compensation mechanism, and optimization algorithm. Future research will involve validation on a physical ASEHSA platform, further exploration of the method’s applicability and robustness under diverse operating conditions, and extension to other industrial systems with similar nonlinear time delay features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Actuation and Control Technologies for Vehicle Driving Systems—2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 16212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Tolerant Robust Control of Four-Wheel Independent Electro-Mechanical Brake Actuators Using Time Delay Control with Relative Weighting to Lateral Velocity and Yaw Rate

by Oh-Seok Kwon

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120616 - 17 Dec 2025

The electrification of vehicle chassis systems is increasingly important due to benefits such as vehicle lightweighting, enhanced safety, and design flexibility. However, faults in these systems can seriously compromise safety, making Fault Tolerant Control (FTC) essential. This study investigated FTC of four-wheel independent [...] Read more.

The electrification of vehicle chassis systems is increasingly important due to benefits such as vehicle lightweighting, enhanced safety, and design flexibility. However, faults in these systems can seriously compromise safety, making Fault Tolerant Control (FTC) essential. This study investigated FTC of four-wheel independent Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) actuators and proposed a method to prevent lane departure under actuator faults. Fault Tolerant Robust Control (FTRC) of four-wheel independent EMB actuators using Time Delay Control (TDC) was applied without Fault Detection and Diagnosis (FDD) to maintain real-time capability, and without steering control to reduce system complexity. In addition, for actuator faults causing large lateral displacements, a control strategy applying relative weighting to lateral velocity and yaw rate was introduced. The results showed that, even when the faults of the EMB actuators were severe and asymmetric between the left and right sides of the vehicle, overall vehicle stability—including lateral and yaw motions—was preserved through the proposed FTRC approach without FDD and steering control. Moreover, the relative weighting strategy effectively reduced lateral displacement, preventing lane departure. These findings highlight the significance of the proposed method for ensuring FTRC in electrified braking systems, enhancing safety, reducing lateral displacement, preventing lane departure, ensuring real-time capability, and reducing the complexity required in practical FTC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Control for Chassis Devices in Electric Vehicles—2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 5033 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation Method for Hydraulic Tensioning Systems in Tracked Vehicles Using Simulink–AMESim–RecurDyn

by Zian Ding, Shufa Sun, Hongxing Zhu, Zhiyong Yan and Yuan Zhou

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120615 - 17 Dec 2025

We developed a robust tri-platform co-simulation framework that integrates Simulink, AMESim, and RecurDyn to address the dynamic inconsistencies observed in traditional tensioning models for tracked vehicles. The proposed framework synchronizes nonlinear hydraulic dynamics, closed-loop control, and track–ground interactions within a unified time step, [...] Read more.

We developed a robust tri-platform co-simulation framework that integrates Simulink, AMESim, and RecurDyn to address the dynamic inconsistencies observed in traditional tensioning models for tracked vehicles. The proposed framework synchronizes nonlinear hydraulic dynamics, closed-loop control, and track–ground interactions within a unified time step, thereby ensuring causal consistency along the pressure–flow–force–displacement power chain. Five representative operating conditions—including steady tension tracking, random road excitation, steering/braking pulses, supply-pressure drops, and parameter perturbations—were analyzed. The results show that the tri-platform model reduces tracking error by up to 60%, shortens recovery time by 35%, and decreases energy consumption by 12–17% compared with dual-platform models. Both simulations and full-scale experiments confirm that strong cross-domain coupling enhances system stability, robustness, and energy consistency under variable supply pressure and parameter uncertainties. The framework provides a high-fidelity validation tool and a transferable modeling paradigm for electro-hydraulic actuation systems in tracked vehicles and other multi-domain machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Surface Vehicles)

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26 pages, 22711 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Advanced Servo Control and Adaptive Path Planning for a Vision-Aided Omnidirectional Launch Platform in Sports-Training Applications

by Shuai Wang, Yinuo Xie, Kangyi Huang, Jun Lang, Qi Liu and Yaoming Zhuang

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120614 - 15 Dec 2025

A system-level scheme that couples a multi-dimensional attention-fused vision model and an improved Dijkstra planner is proposed for basketball robots in complex scenes. Fast-moving object detection, cluttered background recognition, and real-time path decision are targeted. For vision, the proposed YOLO11 with Multi-dimensional Attention [...] Read more.

A system-level scheme that couples a multi-dimensional attention-fused vision model and an improved Dijkstra planner is proposed for basketball robots in complex scenes. Fast-moving object detection, cluttered background recognition, and real-time path decision are targeted. For vision, the proposed YOLO11 with Multi-dimensional Attention Fusion (YOLO11-MAF) is equipped with four modules: Coordinate Attention (CoordAttention), Efficient Channel Attention (ECA), Multi-Scale Channel Attention (MSCA), and Large-Separable Kernel Attention (LSKA). Detection accuracy and robustness for high-speed basketballs are raised. For planning, an improved Dijkstra algorithm is proposed. Binary heap optimization and heuristic fusion cut time complexity from

O (V^{2})

to

O ((V + E) \log V)

. Redundant expansions are removed and planning speed is increased. A complete robot platform integrating mechanical, electronic, and software components is constructed. End-to-end experiments show the improved vision model raises mAP@0.5 by 0.7% while keeping real-time frames per second (FPS). The improved path planning algorithm cuts average compute time by 16% and achieves over 95% obstacle avoidance success. The work offers a new approach for real-time perception and autonomous navigation of intelligent sport robots. It lays a basis for future multi-sensor fusion and adaptive path planning research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced High-Precision Servo Control Systems in Industrial Applications)

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17 pages, 3579 KB

Open AccessArticle

Accuracy Evaluation of a Linear Servo Positioning System

by Tamás Tornai, János Simon, László Gogolák and Igor Fürstner

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120613 - 15 Dec 2025

Reliable positioning performance is crucial in precision industrial automation, especially under dynamic conditions. This research focuses on examining the accuracy of a toothed belt driven linear servo motor positioning system, with the aim of identifying the main factors influencing position deviation. The system [...] Read more.

Reliable positioning performance is crucial in precision industrial automation, especially under dynamic conditions. This research focuses on examining the accuracy of a toothed belt driven linear servo motor positioning system, with the aim of identifying the main factors influencing position deviation. The system was built on a Power Belt ITO 060M shaft, controlled by an Rtelligent RS200-G servo controller and an Omron CP1L-E PLC. Position measurement was performed by a laser distance meter and a Cognex IS2000C-130-40-SR8 industrial camera, both calibrated with certified gauge blocks. The linear unit was moved to predefined points at different speeds, accelerations, and decelerations profiles and the resulting position deviation was recorded for each case. Several analytical methods were used to evaluate the collected measurement data to determine which factors have the greatest impact on positioning error. The result showed that speed significantly affected the accuracy of the system, while the effects of deceleration and acceleration were less pronounced. The study contributes to the fine-tuning of linear motion system and the targeted improvement of their performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision Actuators)

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11 pages, 2456 KB

Open AccessCommunication

A Three-Stage Amplification Mechanism for a Compact Piezoelectric Actuator

by Hsien-Shun Liao, Chi-Yun Wu and Chung-Hsu Lin

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120612 - 15 Dec 2025

Mechanical amplifiers can enhance the travel range of piezoelectric actuators, thereby expanding the applications of these actuators. Various amplification mechanisms have been proposed for piezoelectric actuators with different design requirements. For instance, rhombus- and bridge-type amplification mechanisms are compact and can therefore be [...] Read more.

Mechanical amplifiers can enhance the travel range of piezoelectric actuators, thereby expanding the applications of these actuators. Various amplification mechanisms have been proposed for piezoelectric actuators with different design requirements. For instance, rhombus- and bridge-type amplification mechanisms are compact and can therefore be applied in many applications with size restrictions. However, the amplification ratio of a single-stage rhombus- or bridge-type mechanism is limited. In this study, a novel three-stage amplifier was developed to achieve a high amplification ratio while keeping the device compact. A piezoelectric actuator integrated with this amplifier had a travel range of 207.5 μm, an amplification ratio of 13.7, and dimensions of 33.5 mm × 34.2 mm × 10 mm. Moreover, this actuator was used to construct a compact jetting dispenser with dimensions of 69 mm × 72 mm × 20 mm. Experimental results suggested that this dispenser can generate uniform and stable droplets, confirming the practical utility of the developed piezoelectric actuator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Actuator Materials)

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28 pages, 3859 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Assessment of Semi-Active ECS Under Low-Friction Conditions with Integrated Roll–Yaw Control

by Jeongwoo Lee and Jaepoong Lee

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 611; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120611 - 15 Dec 2025

This study quantitatively evaluated the performance of a semi-active electronically controlled suspension (ECS) on low-friction (low-μ) road surfaces. A mid-size passenger vehicle equipped with a reverse-type continuously variable damper was tested through double lane change (DLC) maneuvers on the snow-covered Arjeplog test track [...] Read more.

This study quantitatively evaluated the performance of a semi-active electronically controlled suspension (ECS) on low-friction (low-μ) road surfaces. A mid-size passenger vehicle equipped with a reverse-type continuously variable damper was tested through double lane change (DLC) maneuvers on the snow-covered Arjeplog test track in Sweden. The proposed semi-active control logic, based on Skyhook control, was designed to enhance handling stability by integrating roll rate control with yaw moment compensation control using roll moment distribution. Under semi-active only operation, the peak yaw-rate amplitude decreased by approximately 16% compared with the conventional fixed-damping mode, confirming a clear improvement in yaw stability. Furthermore, when the ECS operated in conjunction with the vehicle dynamic control (VDC) system through a lateral-acceleration signal linkage, the vehicle exhibited smoother roll and yaw responses, as well as highly repeatable steering behavior, across multiple tests. These results demonstrate that the proposed semi-active ECS not only improves transient yaw stability but also enhances response consistency when combined with VDC, providing a practical foundation for integrated chassis control development under real-world low-µ conditions, such as snow and wet roads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Surface Vehicles)

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17 pages, 906 KB

Open AccessArticle

Observer-Based Adaptive Cruise Control with Input Saturation and Disturbance Attenuation: An LMI Approach

by Hayoon Jeon, Kwangil Lee and Han Sol Kim

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 610; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120610 - 15 Dec 2025

This paper addresses the observer-based controller design for adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems using a linear matrix inequality (LMI) framework, considering both input saturation and disturbance attenuation performance. To formulate the controller design problem as LMIs, the nonlinear input saturation is represented as [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the observer-based controller design for adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems using a linear matrix inequality (LMI) framework, considering both input saturation and disturbance attenuation performance. To formulate the controller design problem as LMIs, the nonlinear input saturation is represented as a convex combination of linear state feedback controllers. Unlike conventional approaches that only reformulate input saturation, this work further incorporates the estimated state and the decay rate of a Lyapunov function to establish an invariant level set condition, leading to a novel LMI-based design criterion. The proposed method incorporates level set conditions to handle input constraints and employs an

H_{\infty}

criterion to ensure disturbance attenuation. Since the resulting design conditions are non-convex due to bilinear matrix terms, a two-step approach is applied to derive the controller design conditions in the form of LMIs. Finally, simulation results are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dynamics and Motion Control of Unmanned Aerial/Underwater/Ground Vehicles—2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 3163 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cloud-Assisted Nonlinear Model Predictive Control with Deep Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Vehicle Path Tracking

by Yuxuan Zhang, Bing Chen, Yan Wang and Nan Li

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 609; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120609 - 13 Dec 2025

Model Predictive Control (MPC) stands out as a prominent method for achieving optimal control in autonomous driving applications. However, the effectiveness of MPC approaches critically depends on the availability of accurate dynamic models and often necessitates substantial computational overhead for real-time optimization procedures [...] Read more.

Model Predictive Control (MPC) stands out as a prominent method for achieving optimal control in autonomous driving applications. However, the effectiveness of MPC approaches critically depends on the availability of accurate dynamic models and often necessitates substantial computational overhead for real-time optimization procedures at every iteration. Recently, the research community has been increasingly drawn to the concept of cloud-assisted MPC, which harnesses the capabilities of powerful cloud computing to provide users with on-demand computational resources and data storage services. Within these cloud-assisted MPC frameworks, control signals are merged with a cloud-based MPC, which leverages the substantial processing power of cloud infrastructure to determine optimal control actions using detailed nonlinear models for greater accuracy. Simultaneously, a local MPC runs on simplified linear models constrained by limited on-device computing resources, delivering prompt control responses at the cost of reduced model accuracy. To achieve an effective trade-off between rapid response and model fidelity, this work presents a new model-free deep reinforcement learning structure designed to merge cloud and local MPC outputs. Tests conducted on path-following scenarios show that the introduced method achieves superior control performance compared to existing reinforcement learning baselines and conventional rule-based fusion strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Surface Vehicles)

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23 pages, 7516 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ensuring Safe Physical HRI: Integrated MPC and ADRC for Interaction Control

by Gao Wang, Zhihai Lin, Feiyan Min, Deping Li and Ning Liu

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120608 - 12 Dec 2025

This paper proposes a safety-constrained interaction control scheme for robotic manipulators by integrating model predictive control (MPC) and active disturbance rejection control (ADRC). The proposed method is specifically designed for manipulators with complex nonlinear dynamics. To ensure that the control system satisfies safety [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a safety-constrained interaction control scheme for robotic manipulators by integrating model predictive control (MPC) and active disturbance rejection control (ADRC). The proposed method is specifically designed for manipulators with complex nonlinear dynamics. To ensure that the control system satisfies safety constraints during human–robot interaction, MPC is incorporated into the impedance control framework to construct a model predictive impedance controller (MPIC). By exploiting the prediction and constraint-handling capabilities of MPC, the controller provides guaranteed safety throughout the interaction process. Meanwhile, ADRC is employed to track the target joint control signals generated by the MPIC, where an extended state observer is utilized to compensate for dynamic modeling errors and nonlinear disturbances within the system, thereby achieving accurate trajectory tracking. The proposed method is validated through both simulation and real-world experiments, achieving high-performance interaction control with safety constraints at a 2 ms control cycle. The controller exhibits active compliant interaction behavior when the interaction stays within the constraint boundaries, while maintaining strict adherence to the safety constraints when the interaction tends to violate them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motion Planning, Trajectory Prediction, and Control for Robotics)

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20 pages, 7461 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Wall-Climbing Robot with a Mechanical Arm for Weld Inspection of Large Pressure Vessels

by Ming Zhong, Mingjian Pan, Zhengxiong Mao, Ruifei Lyu and Yaxin Liu

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120607 - 12 Dec 2025

Inspecting the inner walls of large pressure vessels requires accurate weld seam recognition, complete coverage, and precise path tracking, particularly in low-feature environments. This paper presents a fully autonomous mobile robotic system that integrates weld seam detection, localization, and tracking to support ultrasonic [...] Read more.

Inspecting the inner walls of large pressure vessels requires accurate weld seam recognition, complete coverage, and precise path tracking, particularly in low-feature environments. This paper presents a fully autonomous mobile robotic system that integrates weld seam detection, localization, and tracking to support ultrasonic testing. An improved Differentiable Binarization Network (DBNet) combined with the Spatially Variant Transformer (SVTR) model enhances digital stamp recognition, while weld paths are reconstructed from three-dimensional position data acquired via binocular stereo vision. To ensure complete traversal and accurate tracking, a global–local hierarchical planning strategy is implemented: the A-star (A*) algorithm performs global path planning, the Rapidly Exploring Random Tree Connect (RRT-Connect) algorithm handles local path generation, and point cloud normal–based spherical interpolation produces smooth tracking trajectories for robotic arm motion control. Experimental validation demonstrates a 94.7% digital stamp recognition rate, 95.8% localization success, 1.65 mm average weld tracking error, 2.12° normal fitting error, 98.2% seam coverage, and a tracking speed of 96 mm/s. These results confirm the system’s capability to automate weld seam inspection and provide a reliable foundation for subsequent ultrasonic testing in pressure vessel applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Mobile Robotics Navigation, 2nd Volume)

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18 pages, 2520 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics Analysis of Multibody Systems Based on Flexible Thermal Coupling Solid Elements

by Zuqing Yu and Yibin Shen

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 606; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120606 - 12 Dec 2025

In high-precision fields such as automotive and aerospace, solid elements are commonly used to verify the dynamic response of key components, which can comprehensively simulate three-dimensional stress, deformation, and temperature field changes. In this study, a new thermo-dynamic coupled solid element is proposed, [...] Read more.

In high-precision fields such as automotive and aerospace, solid elements are commonly used to verify the dynamic response of key components, which can comprehensively simulate three-dimensional stress, deformation, and temperature field changes. In this study, a new thermo-dynamic coupled solid element is proposed, which is suitable for large deformations based on the absolute nodal coordinate formulation (ANCF). In ANCF, the position and gradient vectors, as generalized coordinates, are used to describe displacement fields. Similarly, the temperature and temperature gradient are used as generalized coordinates for describing the temperature field. The physical meaning of the temperature gradient is the change in temperature relative to the coordinates of matter. Therefore, the temperature field and displacement field can be described within the same isoparametric element. Based on the unified element grid to establish dynamic equations and heat transfer equations, it can describe the bidirectional coupling effect of two physical fields. The generalized-α method simultaneously solves the dynamic and heat transfer equations within one time step. For thermally induced vibrations of simply supported beams, the maximum absolute error of dimensionless displacement at test points is less than 0.001, and temperature error is less than 0.5 K. The remaining two examples demonstrate that the proposed method can be used for the dynamic response calculation of thermally coupled multibody systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Control Systems)

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16 pages, 705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Event-Triggered Control for Discrete-Time Linear Systems Under Actuator and Sensor Constraints

by Jinze Jia, Yonggang Chen, Jishen Jia, Liping Luo and Rui Dong

Actuators 2025, 14(12), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14120605 - 12 Dec 2025

This paper focuses on designing an event-triggered dynamic output feedback controller for discrete-time linear systems subject to actuator and sensor constraints as well as external disturbances. A dynamic event-triggered condition with two generalized weighting parameters is introduced to regulate sensor-to-controller communication. By integrating [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on designing an event-triggered dynamic output feedback controller for discrete-time linear systems subject to actuator and sensor constraints as well as external disturbances. A dynamic event-triggered condition with two generalized weighting parameters is introduced to regulate sensor-to-controller communication. By integrating generalized sector conditions, Lyapunov analysis, and linearization techniques, sufficient conditions are derived in terms of linear matrix inequalities, ensuring bounded closed-loop trajectories, prescribed

H_{\infty}

performance, and asymptotic stability in the disturbance-free case. Furthermore, optimization problems are formulated to maximize the event-triggering rate while preserving the desired system performance. Simulation results show that, compared to time-triggered control, the event-triggered control effectively reduces the communication frequency, thereby significantly conserving communication resources. Compared with existing results, this work presents the first event-triggered dynamic output feedback scheme for discrete-time linear systems with dual saturation constraints. The inclusion of generalized weighting parameters and the use of generalized sector conditions allow the design to be carried out within a flexible local framework with reduced conservatism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Control Systems)

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