What Drives the Contemporary Black–White Racial Disparities in Gout in the US? Impact of Social Determinants of Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Are Black Americans at Higher Risk of Gout Than White Americans?
3. What Are the Contemporary National Level Black–White Disparity Figures?
4. What Drives the Contemporary Black–White Racial Disparities in the US?
4.1. Socioeconomic Status
4.2. Diet Quality and Alcohol
4.3. Adiposity
4.4. Diuretic Medications
4.5. Chronic Kidney Disease
5. Are there Black–White Disparities in Gout Care and Outcomes in the US?
5.1. Gout Care Disparity
5.2. Gout Outcomes Disparity
5.3. More Frequent Gout-Primary ED Visits and Hospitalisation among the US Black Population
5.4. Role of Inherent Systematic Health Care Disparities
6. What Research Is Needed to Reduce Black–White Disparities?
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Years | Black vs. White Disparity | Data Source/Population |
---|---|---|---|
Gout Prevalence, % or Odds Ratio | |||
Helget et al. [22] | 2014 | 7.0% (7.0 to 7.1) vs. 6.0% (5.9 to 6.0) | Veteran’s Affairs (99% male) |
McCormick et al. [23] | 2007–2016 | Overall: 1.46 (1.22 to 1.74) | NHANES (US general population) |
Women: 1.81 (1.29 to 2.53) | |||
Men: 1.26 (1.02 to 1.55) | |||
Gout Incidence, Relative Risk or Incidence Rate | |||
Hochberg et al. [14] | 1957–64 (Hopkins) and 1958–65 (Meharry), to 1988–92 | 1.69 (1.02 to 2.80) | Meharry-Hopkins Study (male physicians) |
Krishnan et al. [24] | 1973–75 to 1980–82 | 0.95 (0.64 to 1.41) | MR-FIT Study (all males) |
Helget et al. [22] | 2014 | 7.3 (7.1 to 7.5) vs. 5.9 (5.8 to 6.0) per 1000 PY | Veteran’s Affairs (99% male) |
Maynard et al. [25] | 1987–89 to 2012 | Women: 2.51 (2.03 to 3.12) | ARIC |
Men: 1.73 (1.37 to 2.18) | |||
Thompson et al. [15] | 1999 to 2016 | 1.34 (1.26 to 1.43) | Multiethnic Cohort Study (Medicare beneficiaries) |
Hyperuricemia Prevalence, Odds Ratio | |||
McCormick et al. [23] | 2007–2016 | Women: 2.00 (1.62 to 2.47) | NHANES (US general population) |
Men: 1.39 (1.15 to 1.68) | |||
Hyperuricemia Incidence, Relative Risk | |||
Gaffo et al. [26] | 1985–86 to 2005–06 | Women: 2.79 (2.02 to 3.86) | CARDIA |
Men: 0.87 (0.73 to 1.04) | |||
McAdams-DeMarco et al. [27] | 1987–89 to 1996–99 | 1.79 (1.37 to 2.33) | ARIC |
Krishnan et al. [24] | 1973–75 to 1980–82 | 1.10 (0.98 to 1.24) | MR-FIT Study (all males) |
Study | Black vs. White Disparity | Data Source/Population |
---|---|---|
Quality Of Care and Health Outcomes | ||
Urate-Lowering Therapy Use, Odds Ratio | ||
Krishnan et al. [74] | 0.18 (0.04 to 0.78) | NACS (US general population) |
Chen-Xu et al. [75] | 0.84 (0.53 to 1.34) | NHANES (US general population) |
Adherence to Urate-Lowering Therapy (≥80% of Days Covered), Odds Ratio | ||
Rashid et al. [78] | 0.68 (0.62 to 0.76) | Managed healthcare plan |
Solomon et al. [76] | 0.54 (0.44 to 0.66) | US Medicare |
Singh et al. [77] | 0.74 (0.72 to 0.76) | Veteran’s Affairs (99% male) |
Achieving Target Serum Urate (<6 mg/dL), Odds Ratio | ||
Rashid et al. [78] | 0.80 (0.78 to 0.89) | Managed healthcare plan |
Singh et al. [79] | 0.94 (0.89 to 0.99) | Veteran’s Affairs (99% male) |
Health-Related Quality of Life, Mean Score or Prevalence Ratio | ||
Singh et al. [80] | SF-36 Mental Health: 40.8 vs. 46.3 (p < 0.01) 1 | Veteran’s Affairs (98% male) |
SF-36 Role Emotional: 31.3 vs. 40.6 (p < 0.01) 1 | ||
SF-36 Social Functioning: 37.3 vs. 41.5 (p = 0.04) 1 | ||
SF-36 Mental Component: 39.5 vs. 46.2 (p < 0.01) 1 | ||
GIS Gout Concern: 73.7 vs. 64.3 (p < 0.01) 2 | ||
GIS Unmet Treatment Need: 41.4 vs. 33.9 (p < 0.01) 2 | ||
GIS Well-Being During Attacks: 61.7 vs. 51.1 (p < 0.01) 2 | ||
GIS Concern During Attacks: 60.4 vs. 50.0 (p < 0.01) 2 | ||
Teevan Burke et al. [81] | Poor SPPB score: 1.35 (1.09 to 1.66) 3 | ARIC |
Poor walking speed: 1.61 (1.26 to 2.05) | ||
Flare Frequency, Rate Ratio | ||
Jackson et al. [82] | 1.17 (1.11 to 1.23) | Managed healthcare plan |
Healthcare Ulitization and Costs | ||
Gout-Related Healthcare Costs, Cost Ratio | ||
Jackson et al. [82] | 1.16 (1.05 to 1.28) | Managed healthcare plan |
Gout-Primary Inpatient Hospitalisations, Rate Ratio | ||
Yokose et al., 2022 [83] | All: 4.07 (3.90 to 4.24) | NIS (US general population) |
Women: 4.80 (4.45 to 5.17) | ||
Men: 3.76 (3.57 to 3.95) | ||
Gout-Primary Emergency Department Visits, Rate Ratio | ||
Yokose et al., 2022 [83] | All: 5.01 (4.96 to 5.06) | NEDS (US general population) |
Women: 5.91 (5.79 to 6.03) | ||
Men: 4.73 (4.68 to 4.79) | ||
Singh et al. [84] | RR 2.68 (1.48 to 4.86) * | Veteran’s Affairs (98% male) |
Gout-Primary Inpatient Hospitalisations, Mean Excess Cost per Admission | ||
Yokose et al., 2022 [83] | All: $916.30 ($450.00 to $1382.50) | NIS (US general population) |
Women: $1530.20 ($671.40 to $2388.90) | ||
Men: $618.90 ($24.60 to $1213.20) | ||
Ambulatory Visits for Gout, Rate Ratio | ||
Singh et al. [84] | 1.80 (1.30 to 2.50) | Veteran’s Affairs (98% male) |
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McCormick, N.; Yokose, C.; Choi, H.K. What Drives the Contemporary Black–White Racial Disparities in Gout in the US? Impact of Social Determinants of Health. Gout Urate Cryst. Depos. Dis. 2023, 1, 99-114. https://doi.org/10.3390/gucdd1020010
McCormick N, Yokose C, Choi HK. What Drives the Contemporary Black–White Racial Disparities in Gout in the US? Impact of Social Determinants of Health. Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease. 2023; 1(2):99-114. https://doi.org/10.3390/gucdd1020010
Chicago/Turabian StyleMcCormick, Natalie, Chio Yokose, and Hyon K. Choi. 2023. "What Drives the Contemporary Black–White Racial Disparities in Gout in the US? Impact of Social Determinants of Health" Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease 1, no. 2: 99-114. https://doi.org/10.3390/gucdd1020010