What’s in a Bird’s Name? Bird Records and Aguaruna Names in Amazonian Indigenous Territories of Peru

Simple Summary

Highlighting connections between biological diversity and human languages can provide support for the conservation of both nature and culture. We investigated birds and bird names in western Amazonia, the region with the highest bird species richness in the world, working with indigenous communities whose oral traditions include rich knowledge of bird ecology, taxonomy, and behavior. Between 2004 and 2020, we conducted bird surveys together with residents of indigenous Aguaruna territories in the upper Marañón River valley, northern Peru, where no ecological surveys have been published before now. Based on field surveys in 10 Aguaruna communities, we documented 427 bird species in 51 families, including eight wintering Nearctic–Neotropical migratory species. We documented Aguaruna names for 294 bird species, representing 69% of the bird species detected in the study area. Although prior research suggested that unique Aguaruna names exist for the majority of the bird species present, we found unique Aguaruna names for just over a third (38%) of bird species documented, with the remainder of bird names shared by multiple species or families. Our findings provide evidence of high bird species richness benefiting from effective protection on indigenous lands, and of oral traditions that include a significant source of information on bird taxonomy but unfortunately are in decline.

Abstract

Western Amazonia hosts the highest bird diversity in the world, yet in many regional indigenous territories, biodiversity remains poorly known to science. Between 2004 and 2020, we conducted research with members of 10 indigenous Aguaruna communities in four regions of the northern Peruvian Amazon, recording a total of 427 bird species, including eight wintering Nearctic migratory species. Past studies suggested that unique Aguaruna names exist for the majority of bird species present, and this hypothesis was a focus of our research. We identified unique Aguaruna names for ~38% (161) of bird species documented and generic (shared) Aguaruna names for an additional ~31% (132) of bird species documented; the remaining ~31% (134) of bird species documented had no known Aguaruna name. Avian family membership was a significant predictor of whether a bird species had a unique Aguaruna name. Avian families in which a majority of species had unique Aguaruna names included parrots (Psittacidae), manakins (Pipridae), and nightjars (Caprimulgidae), comprising many conspicuous species in terms of their appearance, vocalizations, and/or behavior. Avian families in which a majority of species had no Aguaruna name included ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Furnariidae), tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae), and hummingbirds (Trochilidae), comprising many small, cryptic, forest interior species. Collaborative research on avian ecology together with studies of indigenous names and knowledge offers a basis on which to increase conservation engagement with indigenous people.

1. Introduction

Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples in the tropics host much of the world’s biodiversity [1]. An estimated 60 million indigenous people around the world directly depend almost entirely on forests for survival, and in turn, many indigenous territories effectively protect tropical forests from deforestation [2,3,4,5]. In the case of the largest contiguous forest in the world in the Amazon Basin, a third of its area is included in indigenous territories, and a quarter in protected areas [6]. The ecological knowledge and practices of indigenous peoples have important implications for the success of conservation efforts in this region [7]. A case in point is the Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot, stretching across western South America from Venezuela to Argentina, which hosts the greatest bird species richness and numbers of endemic species in the world and is inhabited by approximately 10 million indigenous people from more than 50 ethnic groups with distinct languages [8]. Many indigenous people who are highly knowledgeable about nature belong to cultures that have been maintained in oral, rather than written, forms. Unfortunately, such traditional knowledge and practices that have developed over thousands of years are now highly threatened [9,10,11], as many human languages are declining in parallel with the catastrophic loss of biodiversity [12,13,14].

Approaches to mitigate losses of both natural and cultural heritage increasingly highlight the connections between them, particularly given the concurrence of biological and linguistic diversity in biodiversity hotspots [15,16]. These approaches include community engagement in the form of citizen participation in the collection and classification of data that are in turn used by scientists [17]. Although the term “citizen science” began appearing in scientific publications in the 1990s, the approach of including local knowledge in scientific research has a much longer history [17]. Many common and scientific names of birds, for example, stem from traditional knowledge and beliefs about birds, and some are derived from indigenous languages that are no longer spoken or known [18,19]. The standard convention of using scientific names, or taxonomic binomials, stems from the pioneering work of Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, which allowed speakers of different languages to communicate about the same species [20]. For example, the bird Linnaeus and his fellow Swedes knew by the name gärdsmyg, which can be interpreted as “one who sneaks around the fence”, was known to Germans as the Zaunkönig, or “king of the fence”, and to the English as the wren. The origins of wren’s English name are not clear but may derive from the Old Norse rindill, roughly meaning “little tail”, a possible reference to the fact that the wren’s tail is conspicuously cocked upward, a near-unique feature among European birds [19]. Given its extensive range across Europe and Asia, the wren has dozens of common names in different languages. Linneaus gave the wren the scientific binomial Troglodytes troglodytes, possibly inspired by its French name, troglodyte mignon, which can be translated as “cute cave-dweller”, perhaps reflecting the bird’s use of crevices and natural cavities as nest sites.

First published in Latin as Systema Naturae in 1735, Linnaeus’ groundbreaking book was revised multiple times and subsequently appeared in English under the title, “A General System of Nature…” [20]. The Linnaean taxonomic classification system divides organisms from broad to specific categories, including domains, kingdoms, phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species, based on their apparent relationships with each other as determined from morphology and other factors, including genetic data in the modern era. Linnaeus’ efforts resulted in the first and only universal system of organizing biological taxa and relied on Latin and ancient Greek (languages no longer in use in any vernacular) as its standards. Through this endeavor, Linnaeus provided a key that offered people everywhere the means to communicate about species in a comprehensive system organized to reflect the relationships of all members of the natural world. Since the establishment of the Linnean taxonomic system, many researchers have used it as a basis for comparison with classification and naming systems for birds among traditional peoples [21,22,23,24].

Based on research with indigenous peoples in Mexico and Peru, Berlin [22] hypothesized that people in traditional societies categorize plant and animal taxa using common names that correspond to scientific species as recognized in the Linnean taxonomic system. Few studies have tested this hypothesis with indigenous names in languages belonging to oral traditions that were put into written form until recently [25,26,27]. The process of producing the first dictionary in Aguaruna [26], an indigenous Amazonian language, facilitated the scientific recognition of a bird known to the Aguaruna as inchítuch, which was subsequently described as a new species, the Orange-throated Tanager (Wetmorethraupis sterrhopteron) [28,29]. In this case, a unique indigenous bird name corresponds to a single scientific species, but in others, a single indigenous name may be used for multiple species or entire families of birds [30,31,32]. Previous studies that have compared indigenous and scientific bird naming systems have reported unique common names for a proportion of bird species present in study areas, including Akan names for 57% of 143 bird species in southern Ghana [33], Sundanese names for 77% of 222 bird species in West Java, Indonesia [34], and Noongar names for 80% of 166 bird species in western Australia [23]. By contrast, previous studies have in many cases found that traditional naming systems may group multiple species together under one generic common name, such as the case with Northern Sotho speakers in South Africa [31], Akan, Ewe, and Gonja speakers in West Africa [35], and Aguaruna speakers in Peru [32].

Comparing the scientific classification system to that of traditional societies may be complicated by the fact that while the Linnean approach to organizing taxa is based on the premise of discerning species’ relationships to other extant species as well as ancestral species, indigenous systems of organization may operate under other premises. For example, the Karam people in Papua New Guinea traditionally do not consider the cassowary (Casuarius sp.) to be a bird, due to its special relationship with people [36]. Likewise, in many Amazonian traditions, birds are seen, like people, as individuals with agency, intentions, and desires that explain their behavior and relationships [32,37]. For example, Aguaruna people use the name kuncháu to refer to both the White-plumed Antbird (Pithys albifrons) and the Bicolored Antbird (Gymnopithys bicolor), members of the Thamnophilidae (whose Greek roots mean “ant-loving”) family. The Aguaruna describe these species as walking with ants in the same way that people walk their dogs [32], while the ecological explanation for this behavior is that that antbirds follow army ant swarms to forage on arthropods and small vertebrates attempting to escape becoming prey to the ants [38]. Another contrast in Aguaruna and scientific interpretations of bird ecology applies to lekking (from the Swedish word for “play”), a courtship behavior that may include elaborate displays by males to attract mates in species such as hummingbirds (Trochilidae), cotingas (Cotingidae), and manakins (Pipridae). A number of scientific hypotheses have been proposed to explain lekking [39], but from an Aguaruna perspective, lekking birds simply enjoy dancing and parties for the same reasons people do, as they did in their human incarnations before they transformed into birds [30,32].

Highlighting traditional knowledge and names of birds may increase community engagement in bird study and conservation [13,33,40]. For example, in New Zealand, Māori common names are used for birds such as the kākāpō (Strigops habroptila) and tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) [23], and in Hawai’i, Hawai’ian common names are used for birds such as the ‘i‘iwi (Drepanis coccinea) and the ākohekohe (Palmeria dolei) [41]. Unfortunately, however, traditional knowledge of birds, including the use of local and indigenous names, has declined in many regions [41,42,43,44,45] in parallel with ongoing declines in human languages and biodiversity [12,15]. To mitigate such losses of culture and nature, collaborative research with traditional communities can provide important information on names and taxonomy, ecology, awareness of human impacts and ecological responses, and approaches to resource management [46,47,48,49]. Traditional knowledge, beliefs, and stories about birds [50,51,52,53,54] often include important information about bird behavior, ecology, and life histories [2,19,43]. Documenting and elucidating traditional ecological knowledge can thus advance understanding and conservation of both cultural and natural heritage.

Here, we address three main objectives: (1) to document bird species in Amazonian indigenous territories where no previous surveys of birds have been published; (2) to identify Aguaruna names for documented bird species; and (3) to evaluate the occurrence of both unique and generic Aguaruna bird names with reference to their correspondence to scientific nomenclature. Given past research hypothesizing that unique Aguaruna names exist for a majority of species present [21,22], and the importance of birds in Aguaruna culture [30,32], we expected the majority of birds identified in the study area to have unique Aguaruna names and set out to test this hypothesis. We also evaluated possible factors related to the presence or absence of unique Aguaruna names for local bird species [e.g., Orange-breasted Falcon (Falco deiroleucus); Violet-headed Hummingbird (Klais guimeti)], as opposed to generic names shared by multiple species [e.g., falcons (Falconidae); hummingbirds (Trochilidae)], as part of an exploratory, qualitative assessment. To this end, we considered characteristics such as birds’ appearance, vocalizations, behavior, habitat, and cultural significance as factors that might influence whether or not birds were given unique Aguaruna names.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Areas

One of the most biologically diverse countries on earth, Peru features tropical forest on 60% of its land area and is host to nearly 20% of the world’s bird species [55,56]. This spectacular avifauna is one of the largest on earth in a single country and includes a number of endemic and recently discovered species in the northern Peruvian Amazon [28,57,58,59,60,61,62]. As part of a national initiative to promote biodiversity conservation, the Peruvian government established three protected areas and one communal reserve in the upper Marañón valley, including the Cordillera de Colán National Sanctuary (64,115 ha), Ichigkat Muja-Cordillera del Condor National Park (88,477 ha), Santiago-Comaina Reserve (398,449 ha), and the Chayu Nain Communal Reserve (23,598 ha) [63,64,65,66]. This region is part of the Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot and is considered a high-priority area for both bird and plant conservation in Peru [67]. Despite articles on new species discoveries, locations, breeding records, and museum collections [68,69,70], few ecological field studies from this region have been published [71,72,73].

We conducted field research in the western Amazon basin of northern Peru, in tropical rainforest situated between 400 and 800 m above sea level (a.s.l.) [Figure 1]. In the vicinity of the upper Marañón River and its tributaries near the border with Ecuador, approximately 40,000 indigenous residents speak Aguaruna (locally called awajún) as a native language [74]. The word Aguaruna was introduced into Spanish via Jesuit missions by the late 18th century, prior to which the Aguaruna people were referred to as Jívaro, together with three other closely related groups: the Shuar, Achuar, and Huambisa; past research has reported a high degree of mutual intelligibility in Jívaro languages and a high overlap in cultural traditions in their territories in northern Peru and southern Ecuador [22,75]. Anthropological studies have reported the occurrence of Aguaruna names for 159 bird species along the Cenepa River [21], 186 bird species along the Santiago River [21], and 126 bird species in the vicinity of the Chiriaco and Nieva Rivers [43], but unfortunately did not include any lists of bird species or Aguaruna names.

Figure 1. Study region in the upper Marañón River valley, Peru, including four main locations in the Department of Amazonas comprising a total of 10 Aguaruna communities: (1) Wichim and Alto Wawas; (2) Agkais, Ugkum, and Tatankus; (3) Saasá, Tuntanain, and Yumigkus; and (4) Japaime Quebrada and Japaime Escuela. Map by Brandon Franta.

Approximately 500 bird species have been hypothesized to be present in the study region [21], and a list of 308 bird species from two communities (Wichim and Alto Wawas) in the study area was previously reported, together with their Aguaruna names [76]. The majority of the Aguaruna population lives in the Peruvian Department of Amazonas, including an estimated 35% monolingual Aguaruna speakers and the other 65% bilingual in Aguaruna and Spanish [74]. The dearth of ecological studies in this region is partly related to its remoteness as well as the history of political conflicts in the region [75,77]. Moreover, entry into indigenous territories by non-residents is only possible with special permission from community leaders, a factor that allows Aguaruna communities to be highly successful in maintaining control over their titled lands [72,76]. The Aguaruna language existed exclusively in oral form until the 20th century, when Christian missionaries worked with native speakers to develop its written form [26,29]. The introduction and spread of Christianity reduced the previously high homicide rate, which formed part of traditional cultural practices, resulting in an increasing Aguaruna population [29,77] that is now ~80% literate [74]. Past studies have documented extensive Aguaruna knowledge of bird taxonomy and ecology [21,22,43].

2.2. Field Data Collection and Evaluation

Between 2004 and 2020, we conducted bird surveys together with indigenous community residents in four study areas [Figure 1] comprising 10 Aguaruna communities in the upper Marañón River valley, northern Peru. Our four study areas included the Aguaruna communities of Wichim and Alto Wawas [Figure 1, area 1]; Agkais, Ugkum, and Tatankus [Figure 1, area 2]; Saasá, Tuntanain, and Yumigkus [Figure 1, area 3]; and Japaime Quebrada and Japaime Escuela [Figure 1, area 4]. The habitat in this region comprises tropical lowland evergreen forests including trees 25–40 m in height with scattered emergent trees up to 60 m tall, river-edge forest including lower-stature successional vegetation, montane forest (> 500 m a.s.l.), elfin forest consisting of low, dense forests on ridgetops, within which are treefall gaps, scattered agricultural fields and patches of selectively logged forest and secondary forest. Elevation ranges from ~300 to 1000 m a.s.l., with very steep slopes in some areas and fast-running streams between rivers, including the Marañón River, a major tributary of the Amazon River.

Bird surveys were conducted in groups of at least two observers, all of which were led by either NA or BSS, using 8 × 42 binoculars to visually identify birds with a field guide [55,56]. Surveys were conducted primarily in humid tropical montane forests, but also in elfin forests, secondary forests, and riparian and agricultural habitats, by slowly walking along established trails while searching for birds. Between July 2004 and March 2005, we conducted bird surveys in Wichim and Alto Wawas [Figure 1, area 1]. Between March and July 2018, we surveyed an area in Agkais, as well as adjacent territories of Ugkum and Tatankus, along the Nieva River. Between October and December 2019, we surveyed an area in the Saasá Communal Conservation Forest and the adjacent Tuntanain Communal Reserve, and the community of Yumigkus. Between January and April 2020, we surveyed areas on the Nieva River near its confluence with the Marañón River, including Japaime Quebrada and Japaime Escuela.

In addition to conducting bird surveys in Wichim and Alto Wawas, we also sampled understory bird communities in February and March 2005, using mist nets as part of an investigation into the effects of single-tree selective logging on forest understory birds [76]. We mist netted birds at seven locations in Wichim and two locations in Alto Wawas, all of which were located in montane evergreen forests, in unlogged areas as well as logged forests 1–2 years postharvest and logged forests 4–5 years postharvest, at altitudes between 550 and 750 m a.s.l. At each sampling site, 8 mist nets (10 m by 3 m, 36 mm mesh) were opened by dawn, checked every 15–20 min, and closed at approximately 1400 h, for an accumulated total of 2064 mist net hours. All birds captured in mist nets were identified, recorded, and released at the site of capture.

In order to document birds’ Aguaruna names, we interviewed Aguaruna residents identified as the most knowledgeable local people about birds. These included co-authors BSS and OTS as well as Segundo and Agustín Tsamajain Yagkuag, Roberto Jeremías Wampush, and Enrique Tsamajain Chumpi, who provided Aguaruna names for species we recorded and indicated whether these were unique or generic names, or whether no name for a species was known. The Aguaruna language occurs in three recognized varieties [74]: one on the Nieva River and its tributaries [Figure 1, areas 2 and 4], the second on the Marañón River and its tributaries, including the Cenepa and Santiago Rivers [Figure 1, area 3], and the third variety on the Chiriaco River [Figure 1, area 1]; our surveys encompassed all three linguistic areas. Wherever possible (i.e., where bird names appeared in the Aguaruna dictionary [26]), we used previously established orthography.

2.3. Statistical Methods

We used field data to produce a spreadsheet with all bird species identified in Linnean taxonomic order [56] with their corresponding Aguaruna names, with reference to their locations in the study area. We then categorized species in terms of (1) whether unique Aguaruna names were provided, (2) whether, instead, species shared generic Aguaruna names between multiple species, or (3) whether no Aguaruna name could be provided. Given past research hypothesizing that unique Aguaruna names exist for the majority of species present, we expected the majority of the birds we identified to have unique Aguaruna names. To test this hypothesis, we used generalized linear models (GLMs) and chi-square tests to test whether the majority of bird species had unique names, both for the entire species list and for each taxonomic family, in order to estimate the probability of species having unique names, given their taxonomic families, and whether this was statistically significant.

Accordingly, we fitted a binomial GLM with only an intercept term using R [78], to test whether the overall proportion of species with unique Aguaruna names represented the majority (>50%) of bird species identified in the study area. We also fitted a binomial GLM to test if the proportion of species with unique Aguaruna names differed significantly among families. The response matrix combined counts of species with and without unique names for each family, while family was included as a categorical predictor without an intercept. A chi-square test was used to assess whether there were significant differences in proportions among families. Finally, we qualitatively assessed and interpreted factors related to the presence or absence of unique Aguaruna names for the bird species documented in the study area, including characteristics such as birds’ appearance, vocalizations, behavior, habitat, and cultural significance.

3. Results

We documented a total of 427 avian species in 51 families in the study area, including 723 mist net captures of 98 species [Table 1, Figure 2, Table A1]. Bird records included 419 year-round residents and eight wintering Nearctic–Neotropical migratory species [56]. The tanager (Thraupidae) family had the highest species richness (50 species), followed by the tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae; 48 species), typical antbirds (Thamnophilidae; 40 species); ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Furnariidae; 30 species), and hummingbirds (Trochilidae; 23 species). Wintering migrants included: Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularius), Olive-sided Flycatcher (Contopus cooperi), Eastern Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus), Swainson’s Thrush (Catharus ustulatus), American Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla), Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis), Summer Tanager (Piranga rubra), and Scarlet Tanager (Piranga olivacea). Bird species threatened or near-threatened with global extinction included the Royal Sunangel (Heliangelus regalis), Olive-sided Flycatcher, and Orange-throated Tanager.

Table 1. Numbers and percentages of bird species with unique Aguaruna names in 51 families in indigenous territories of the upper Marañón River valley, Peru, 2004–2020.

Family	English Common Name	Number of Species Detected in Study Area	Number of Species with Unique Aguaruna Names	Percentage of Species with Unique Aguaruna Names
Thraupidae	Tanagers and Allies	50	19	38
Tyrannidae	Tyrant Flycatchers	48	12	25
Thamnophilidae	Typical Antbirds	40	13	33
Furnariidae	Ovenbirds and Woodcreepers	30	4	13
Trochilidae	Hummingbirds	23	4	17
Psittacidae	New World and African Parrots	16	14	88
Cotingidae	Cotingas	13	7	54
Picidae	Woodpeckers	13	2	15
Bucconidae	Puffbirds	12	0	0
Icteridae	Troupials and Allies	10	6	60
Accipitridae	Hawks, Eagles, and Kites	10	4	40
Pipridae	Manakins	9	7	78
Falconidae	Falcons and Caracaras	9	4	44
Ramphastidae	Toucans	9	4	44
Turdidae	Thrushes and Allies	8	2	25
Columbidae	Pigeons and Doves	8	6	75
Cracidae	Guans, Chachalacas, and Curassows	8	6	75
Ardeidae	Herons, Egrets, and Bitterns	8	4	50
Trogonidae	Trogons	8	1	13
Troglodytidae	Wrens	7	5	71
Tinamidae	Tinamous	7	3	43
Cuculidae	Cuckoos	6	3	50
Parulidae	New World Warblers	6	2	33
Fringillidae	Finches, Euphonias, and	6	0	0
	Allies
Caprimulgidae	Nightjars and Allies	5	5	100
Cardinalidae	Cardinals and Allies	5	1	20
Galbulidae	Jacamars	5	2	40
Strigidae	Owls	5	1	20
Cathartidae	New World Vultures	4	1	25
Rallidae	Rails, Gallinules, and Coots	4	0	0
Grallariidae	Antpittas	3	1	33
Momotidae	Motmots	3	1	33
Tityridae	Tityras and Allies	3	1	33
Formicariidae	Antthrushes	3	0	0
Polioptilidae	Gnatcatchers	3	0	0
Capitonidae	New World Barbets	2	2	100
Nyctibiidae	Potoos	2	2	100
Passerellidae	New World Sparrows	2	1	50
Vireonidae	Vireos, Shrike-Babblers, and Erpornis	2	0	0
Alcedinidae	Kingfishers	1	1	100
Anhimidae	Screamers	1	1	100
Apodidae	Swifts	1	1	100
Cinclidae	Dippers	1	1	100
Corvidae	Crows, Jays, and Magpies	1	1	100
Eurypygidae	Sunbittern	1	1	100
Hirundinidae	Swallows	1	1	100
Odontophoridae	New World Quails	1	1	100
Psophiidae	Trumpeters	1	1	100
Rhinocryptidae	Tapaculos	1	1	100
Scolopacidae	Sandpipers and Allies	1	1	100
Steatornithidae	Oilbird	1	1	100

Figure 2. The majority (78%) of manakins (Pipridae) had unique Aguaruna names; manakins identified in our study area included (a) the Blue-capped Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata; shítagkui); (b) the Golden-headed Manakin (Ceratopipra erythrocephala; achayap); (c) the White-crowned Manakin (Pseudopipra pipra; kawia); and (d) the Kinglet Manakin (Machaeropterus regulus; pinchínam). Photos by Nico Arcilla.

3.1. Area Accounts

In Wichim and Alto Wawas [Figure 1, area 1], we documented 308 bird species over three months [Appendix A], including 98 species captured and released from mist nets. New World flycatchers (Tyrannidae) and antbirds (Thamnophilidae) were the best-represented families. In Agkais, Ugkum, and Tatankus [Figure 1, area 2], we documented 154 species over five months (Appendix A), with tanagers (Thraupidae) and parrots (Psittacidae) the best-represented families. Observations included year-round residents such as the endemic Orange-throated Tanager and the Musician Wren (Cyphorhinus arada), as well as seasonal migrants such as the Southern Screamer (Chauna torquate). In Saasá, Tuntanain, and Yumigkus [Figure 1, area 3], which share management of a Community Conservation Forest, we recorded 166 species over three months, with tanagers (Thraupidae) the best-represented family and observations including lekking species such as the Black-necked Red-Cotinga (Phoenicircus nigricollis) and Andean Cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruvianus). In Japaime Quebrada and Japaime Escuela [Figure 1, area 4], we recorded 167 species over four months (Appendix A); this area included a clay lick that attracted species such as the Scarlet-shouldered Parrotlet (Touit huetii), White-eyed Parakeet (Psittacara leucophthalmus), Orange-cheeked Parrot (Pyrilia barrabandi), and Cobalt-winged Parakeet (Brotogeris cyanoptera).

3.2. Aguaruna Names of Bird Species

A total of 294 bird species we identified had either unique or generic Aguaruna names [Appendix A]. Of the total 427 bird species detected in the study area, we documented unique Aguaruna names for 161 bird species (37.7%, 95% CI: 33–42.1%). The binomial GLM indicated that species were significantly less likely to have unique names than not (estimate = −0.51, SE = 0.10, z = −5.15, p < 0.001). The chi-square test indicated significant differences in the proportion of species with unique Aguaruna names among families (χ² = 161.52, df = 50, p < 0.001). Avian families in which a majority of the species documented had unique Aguaruna names included parrots (Psittacidae; 88%), manakins (Pipridae; 78%; Figure 2), and nightjars (Caprimulgidae; 80%), comprising many species with conspicuous and distinctive vocalizations, coloration, and/or behavior. Avian families in which a majority of species had no Aguaruna name included ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Furnariidae), tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae), and hummingbirds (Trochilidae), comprising many cryptic species of the forest interior.

Out of the 51 bird families documented in the study region, nearly a third (15) were represented by either only one or two species. Of these, 94% (17/18) had unique Aguaruna names, including the Horned Screamer (Anhima cornuta; amuntai), the Sunbittern (Eurypyga helias; piyái, tintin; Figure 3), and the Oilbird (Steatornis caripensis; tayu; Figure 3). Parrots (Psittacidae) had a significant positive coefficient, indicating a higher proportion of species with unique names than expected by chance (p < 0.05). Five families had significant negative coefficients, indicating a significantly lower proportion of species with unique names compared to what would be expected by chance (Figure 3); these families included ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Furnariidae; p < 0.001); tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae; p < 0.001); hummingbirds (Trochilidae; p < 0.01); woodpeckers (Picidae; p < 0.05), and typical antbirds (Thamnophilidae; p < 0.05).

Figure 3. Many bird species with unique Aguaruna names were the sole members of avian families in the study area, including (a) the Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia; tiígkig); (b) the Sunbittern (Eurypyga helias; piyái, tintin); (c) the Oilbird (Steatornis caripensis; tayu); and (d) the Gray-winged Trumpeter (Psophia crepitans; chíwa). Photos by (a) Alejandro Bayer Tamayo, CC BY-SA 2.0, (b) Charles J. Sharp, CC BY-SA 4.0; (c) Eric Gropp, CC BY-SA 2.0, and (d) Rodrigo Mariaca, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

We were unable to document unique Aguaruna names for 134 bird species, representing 31% of the total identified [Appendix A], including rails (Rallidae; 4 species), puffbirds (Bucconidae; 12 species), antthrushes (Formicariidae; 3 species); vireos (Vireonidae; 2 species), gnatcatchers (Polioptilidae; 3 species), or finches (Fringillidae; 6 species). Instead, these species were among 134 species that shared generic Aguaruna names with multiple species (Figure 4). For example, the Aguaruna name seuk is used for wood-rails (Aramides spp.) and pitjuak for crakes (Amaurolimnas spp., Anurolimnas spp.). Likewise, in the woodpecker (Picidae) family, the Aguaruna family name tátasham is given to many large woodpeckers (e.g., Campephilus spp. and Drycopus lineatus). Many medium-sized woodpeckers share the Aguaruna name sawake, including the Little Woodpecker (Dryobates passerinus), the White-throated Woodpecker (Piculus leucolaemus), the Golden-olive Woodpecker (Colaptes rubiginosus), and the Chestnut Woodpecker (Celeus elegans). The Aguaruna name dái was reported for the smallest woodpecker present, Lafresnaye’s Piculet (Picumnus lafresnayi), as well as the medium-sized Ringed Woodpecker (Celeus torquatus).

Figure 4. Most antbirds (Thamnophilidae) lacked unique Aguaruna names, including both (a) the Bicolored Antbird (Gymnopithys bicolor) and (b) the White-plumed Antbird (Pithys albifrons), who share the generic Aguaruna name, kuncháu. Likewise, the majority of hummingbirds (Trochilidae) lack unique Aguaruna names, including (c) the Long-tailed Hermit (Phaethornis superciliosus) and (d) the Fork-tailed Woodnympth (Thalurania furcata); instead, most hummingbirds share the generic Aguaruna name, jempe. Photos by Nico Arcilla.

4. Discussion

Over 15 months of field surveys in Aguaruna territories in the northern Peruvian Amazon from 2004 to 2020, we documented 427 bird species of 51 avian families, together with their Aguaruna names. Unique Aguaruna names were reported for 38% (161) of the species documented, while 31% (132) shared generic names with one or more other species; the remaining 31% (134) of the species in the study area did not have any known Aguaruna name. Our findings nevertheless complement past studies showing that Aguaruna knowledge of bird taxonomy and ecology is extensive and has a high correspondence to that developed through scientific research [21,22,43]. Factors that appeared to influence whether bird species had Aguaruna names included conspicuous appearance (e.g., large size, colorful plumage), vocalizations (e.g., loud, distinctive), and behavior (e.g., lekking, ant-following), as well as habitat (e.g., occurring in open or human-dominated environments or forest interior) and cultural importance (e.g., featured in traditional folklore and stories).

4.1. Aguaruna Names and Knowledge of Bird Species

Given past studies suggesting that unique Aguaruna names existed for 80–90% of animal species present [43,79], we expected a majority of the 427 bird species identified in the study area to have unique Aguaruna names. However, our findings indicate that the majority of the birds we documented did not have unique Aguaruna names to distinguish them in the manner of the Linnean taxonomic system. Instead, 38% of the species we documented had unique Aguaruna names and 31% shared generic Aguaruna names corresponding to groups of species including families and genera. One limitation of past studies in this region is that no field guide to the birds of Peru was available before 2001 [55] and no systematic bird surveys had been carried out to establish a list of birds present in this region until now; instead, previous studies used locally obtained bird specimens [21,22] and interviews where respondents provided lists from memory [32,43] to solicit bird names.

In some oral traditions in regions with lower bird diversity, unique indigenous names may be given to most bird species, such as in the Samoan islands of Polynesia, where the majority of ~70 known bird species have unique Samoan names [80]. However, in a region with such high bird diversity as western Amazonia, with an estimated ~500 bird species in our study area, it is questionable whether unique indigenous names might exist for most species in an exclusively oral tradition, particularly as many of these species are secretive, cryptic, and difficult or impossible to detect or distinguish without tools such as binoculars or mist nets. Nevertheless, Aguaruna culture has a close relationship with birds, whom they consider to have participated directly in the development of their culture [30,32,52]. In addition to naming many of the bird species around them, Aguaruna residents also have names for avian behavior, such as píshak saayu, which is known to biologists as mixed-species flocking. Aguaruna children may be named after birds, such as súgka, the Andean Cock-of-the-rock, and achayap, a name shared by both the Golden-headed Manakin (Ceratopipra erythrocephala) and Blue-backed Manakin (Chiroxiphia pareola).

Aguaruna communities may also be named after birds, such as Saasá, the Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin), a species previously found in this area before unfortunately being hunted to local extinction, and Teésh, the Yellow-rumped Cacique (Cacicus cela), which is featured in folklore as playing a crucial role in rescuing the people from the unkáju, a mythical crab demon that violently oppressed the Aguaruna people before they were liberated by birds [30]. In Aguaruna cosmology, birds were people before they became birds, and serve as intermediaries between the natural and supernatural worlds [30], similar to traditions such as that of the Emberá in Panama [81]. We found no evidence of cases where local bird names appear to originate from outside cultural influences, such as the Agta use of Spanish names including aguila for the Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) and martinez for the introduced Crested Myna (Acridotheres cristatellus) in the Philippines [42], and the Akan use of bird names that reference police uniforms and Christmas in Ghana [33].

4.2. Assessing the Presence of Unique and Generic Indigenous Names for Birds

The proportions of unique and generic Aguaruna bird names we found appear comparable to those of the Agta people in northern Luzon, Philippines, who reported 110 names for 294 birds known to their home area, about half of which are unique to particular species and half of which are generic names applied at the family or genus level [42]. Both the Aguaruna and the Agta appear to assign more distinctive and conspicuous bird species unique names, while smaller, more cryptic, less vocal birds and birds of the forest interior may receive generic names or no name [42]. For example, all four forest-falcons (genus Micrastur; Falconidae) documented in the study area share the Aguaruna generic name bakantáu. In the Agta language, all woodpecker (Picidae) species share the generic name kamambitel, and multiple egrets (e.g., Western Cattle Egret [Bubulcus ibis], Great Egret [Ardea alba], Medium Egret [Ardea intermedia], Little Egret [Egretta garzetta]) share the common name uduk [42]. Similarly, the Emberá people of Panama use the generic name imbichú for all hummingbirds (Trochilidae), the generic name kokarrá for New World wood quails (genus Odontophorus), and the generic name chákoro for New World orioles (genus Icterus) [81].

In many cases, unique Aguaruna names are given to distinguish species that exhibit salient visual differences from congenerics, such as in color or size. For example, the Aguaruna use the name púmpuk for owls (Strigidae) in general, but distinguish the smallest owl, the Peruvian Screech-Owl (Megascops roboratus) with the unique name suutín. In the case of hummingbirds (Trochilidae), Aguaruna uses the name jémpe for hummingbirds in general, but distinguishes the Reddish Hermit (Phaethornis ruber) with the unique names ipák jémpe, where ipák refers to the achiote (Bixa orellana) shrub [26] that produces red fruit used to make a red dye. As another example, the Yellow-tufted Woodpecker (Melanerpes cruentatus), which is described as having “gaudy plumage [that is] unmistakable” [56] has the unique species name tegashá or teashá in Aguaruna, while five other large woodpeckers (e.g., Campephilus spp. and Drycopus lineatus) share the Aguaruna name tátasham. In the case of the Crimson-crested Woodpecker (Campephilus melanoleucos), tátasham is modified to tátasham kiakia; the Aguaruna modifier kiakia may be translated as “dark”, [26] providing some agreement with its Greek-based scientific name root melas, meaning black [82]. All other woodpeckers (Picidae) appeared to lack unique Aguaruna names. Many medium-sized woodpeckers share the Aguaruna name sawake, including Little Woodpecker, White-throated Woodpecker, Golden-olive Woodpecker, and Chestnut Woodpecker. The Aguaruna name dái was reported for one of the smallest woodpeckers, Lafresnaye’s Piculet (Picumnus lafresnayi), as well as the medium-sized Ringed Woodpecker.

Ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Furnariidae) comprise one of the best-represented avian families present in the study area, and many woodcreeper species of various genera share the Aguaruna name kuíntam. However, the Cinnamon-rumped Foliage-gleaner (Philydor pyrrhodes) and all documented members of the genus Automolus share the name ekemin kuíntam. The smallest and most common woodcreeper in the study area [56,76], the Wedge-billed Woodcreeper (Glyphorynchus spirurus), was given the Aguaruna name tushím, but it reportedly shares this with other woodcreeper species including the Olivaceous Woodcreeper (Sittasomus griseicapillus) and some members of the genus Xiphorhynchus. However, the largest woodcreeper in the study area, the Strong-billed Woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes promeropirhynchus), was given a unique name, apu kuíntam, which roughly translates to “chief woodcreeper”.

Vultures (Cathartidae) comprise four species in the study area, and three of them share the Aguaruna name chuwág ([Black Vulture; Coragyps atratus], [Turkey Vulture; Cathartes aura], [Greater Yellow-headed Vulture; Cathartes melambrotus]). While the plumage of the latter three species is predominantly black, the male King Vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) is distinguished from these by a white mantle, and it also has a unique Aguaruna name, ukúmat, which is also an Aguaruna verb meaning “to bury a family member” [26]. Whereas many other members of the Falconidae family in the study area share the same Aguaruna common name, as mentioned above, the Black Caracara (Daptrius ater), characterized by a distinctive appearance, is also characterized by the unique Aguaruna name shánashna in one of our study areas (Wichima and Alto Wawas); in the other study areas where we conducted this investigation, it is recognized by the generic name yákakau, which it shares with the Red-throated Caracara (Ibycter americanus).

4.3. Factors Associated with the Presence or Absence of Unique Aguaruna Names

We found avian family membership to be a highly significant predictor of whether a species has a unique Aguaruna name, and that many conspicuous species in terms of their appearance, vocalizations, and/or behavior had unique Aguaruna names. The Psittacidae was the only avian family for which we found a significant positive coefficient, indicating a higher proportion of unique Aguaruna names for parrot species than would be expected by chance, with unique Aguaruna names for 88% of the 15 parrot species identified in the study area. A family renowned for its beauty, parrots include many large, colorful, conspicuous species that are highly vocal. Parrots are also sought after as pets [83]. Although trapping parrots for the pet trade is unfortunately widespread in many countries [84], involvement in trapping parrots for trade appears to be relatively rare among the Aguaruna. Unique Aguaruna names exist for 80% of the nightjar (Caprimulgidae) species, which are nocturnal and have cryptic plumage present but have highly distinctive vocalizations. Unique Aguaruna names also exist for 78% of the manakins (Pipridae), small but colorful birds that are a highly vocal lekking species.

Large and vocal birds that are both hunted for food and featured in folklore, guan and curassow (Cracidae) species, had unique Aguaruna names in 75% of the cases. These findings are consistent with studies in the Alaskan Arctic showing that larger birds may be more likely to have unique indigenous names, such as in the case of unique Yupik names for most large (e.g., cranes, swans, eagles) and medium-sized (e.g., crows, geese) species, whereas most species of small birds (e.g., swallows, sparrows) lack unique names [24]. Similarly, 75% of the pigeons and doves (Columbidae), which are also large, vocal, and hunted for food, had unique Aguaruna names. In addition, 71% of the wrens (Troglodytidae) had unique Aguaruna names; although their small size and cryptic plumage make them difficult to see, wrens are highly vocal, with distinctive, beautiful, and often highly elaborate songs. Finally, 60% of the New World blackbirds (Icteridae) had unique names; icterids are large, colorful, vocal, highly social, build distinctive and conspicuous nests in large groups, and are featured in folklore.

Previous researchers have likewise found that indigenous knowledge of birds differs by avian family [24]. For example, some groups of Alaska Inuit may have unique names for most local species of ducks, geese, and swans (Anatidae), hawks, eagles, and kites (Accipitridae), and shorebirds and allies (Charadriidae), whereas most species of woodpeckers (Picidae), swallows (Hirundinidae), and warblers (Parulidae) lack unique indigenous Iñupiaq names [24]. In addition, many species that were the sole representatives of their avian family in the study area also had unique Aguaruna names, including the Spotted Sandpiper (tiígkig; Figure 3) and Gray-winged Trumpeter (Psophia crepitans; chíwa; Figure 3). These species are visually conspicuous and may also be hunted by the Aguaruna for food. Our findings thus corroborate past research on indigenous bird naming systems demonstrating that unique names are given to bird species considered important for subsistence or cultural reasons [24].

By contrast, no puffbirds (Bucconidae), and only 15% and 17% of woodpeckers (Picidae) and hummingbirds (Trochilidae), respectively, had unique Aguaruna names. Despite their often bold and beautiful plumage, puffbirds, woodpeckers, and hummingbirds tend to be cryptic species due to their behavior and habitat. Puffbirds are seldom seen because they sit motionless for long periods of time, and woodpeckers are often high in the canopy or hidden behind tree trunks. Although hummingbirds are culturally significant for the Aguaruna and are frequently featured in folklore and traditional stories [29,30], hummingbirds’ small size and fast movements make them challenging to distinguish, and most (83%) hummingbird species documented in the study area lacked unique names.

4.4. Study Limitations and Future Directions

Our surveys were not exhaustive, and future studies should detect additional bird species and reveal additional Aguaruna bird names and knowledge of bird ecology. Future studies would also ideally provide more clarification for some questions and areas of disagreement revealed in our data. For example, there appears to be agreement on the Aguaruna name téuteu for the Bat Falcon (Falco rufigularis), but some also provided this name for the Scrub Nightjar (Nyctidromus anthonyi), while the Aguaruna dictionary definition of téuteu is “a bird species that calls téu, téu, téu” [26]. While in many cases, multiple bird species appeared to share the same Aguaruna name, in others, our Aguaruna collaborators may not have been aware of unique names, as these may be known by few people through oral traditions that are now highly threatened. The Aguaruna dictionary [26] includes many names for as yet unidentified bird species, which could form the basis of future research.

Additional studies of bird names and knowledge in Aguaruna as well as many other languages that did not exist in written form until the past century may make important contributions to our understanding of nature and culture through comparison with the Linnaean taxonomic system, which remains the sole universal means of communicating information about bird species. Meanwhile, challenges to increasing the use of indigenous bird names include not only the lack of studies of indigenous bird names, but also the lack of unique species names for many birds in indigenous languages that until recently did not exist in written form. For example, the most recent and comprehensive field guide to birds in Ghana and Togo, West Africa, includes a checklist of birds that provides names in three regional indigenous languages (Akan, Ewe, and Gonja), while noting that many local names are used for groups of birds (e.g., herons, owls, woodpeckers) rather than unique species [35]. Approximately half of the bird species known in the region appear to lack unique Akan species names, and even fewer unique species names are known in Ewe and Gonja [35]. In other cases, however, multiple indigenous names may exist for the same bird species, which may reflect variations according to the place, language form, or speaker group, as we found among the Aguaruna [Appendix A] and has also been found among the Māori in New Zealand [13], among other languages and regions.

5. Conclusions

Our findings on birds in Aguaruna territories, together with a first systematic list of Aguaruna bird names as they correspond to scientific names, provide a basis on which to increase engagement and collaboration between indigenous communities, ornithologists, and conservation actors in this region. Unfortunately, traditional ecological knowledge is in decline, both in the case of the Aguaruna and other traditional indigenous groups around the world [23,24,32,45,49]. This decline may be reflected in part in our finding, contrary to expectation, that most birds documented do not appear to have unique Aguaruna names. Despite past publications suggesting that unique Aguaruna names exist for the majority of species present [21,43,79], the majority of bird species we identified did not have unique Aguaruna names to distinguish them. Instead, 38% of the species we documented had unique Aguaruna names, 31% shared generic Aguaruna names corresponding to groups of species including families and genera, and the remaining 31% had no known Aguaruna name.

Avian family membership was a significant predictor of whether a bird species had a unique Aguaruna name. A majority of species of parrots (Psittacidae), manakins (Pipridae), and nightjars (Caprimulgidae) had unique Aguaruna names, whereas no puffbirds (Bucconidae) and few ovenbirds or woodcreepers (Furnariidae) or tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae) had unique Aguaruna names. Birds more likely to have Aguaruna names included those with traits such as large size, colorful plumage, loud and distinctive vocalizations, conspicuous behavior, and those with cultural importance as food or pets. Smaller species with cryptic behavior and those occurring in habitats in which they are less visible to people (e.g., inside the forest interior) appeared to be less likely to have unique names, even if they featured in folklore (e.g., woodpeckers, hummingbirds). Continuing to document and elucidate indigenous names and knowledge of birds, particularly those which occur in oral traditions that may otherwise disappear, promises to make valuable contributions towards understanding, valuing, and protecting the natural and cultural heritage of humanity, both in Amazonia and around the world.