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Article

Holocene Climate Shifts Driving Black Soil Formation in NE China: Palynology and AMS14C Dating Insights

by
Hongwen Zhang
1,2,
Haiwei Song
1,2,
Xiangxi Lv
1,2,*,
Wenlong Pang
3,*,
Wenjun Pang
4,*,
Xin Li
1,2,
Yingxue Li
1,2 and
Jiliang Shao
1,2
1
Mudanjiang Natural Resources Survey Center, China Geological Survey, Changchun 130000, China
2
Hulunbuir Black Soil Critical Zone Scientific Observation and Research Station, Hulunbuir 021599, China
3
Xining Natural Resources Survey Center, China Geological Survey, Xining 840099, China
4
Chemical Engineering College, Gansu Industry Polytechnic University, Tianshui 741025, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Quaternary 2025, 8(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030041 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 17 April 2025 / Revised: 4 July 2025 / Accepted: 14 July 2025 / Published: 31 July 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

In this study, 14 palynological samples and nine AMS 14C dating samples were collected from two representative black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain to examine climate changes and their impacts on environmental evolution since the Holocene. The systematic identification, analysis, and research of palynological data reveal that the black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain can be categorized into the following three distinct palynological assemblage zones: the lower zone (11.7–7.5 ka BP) is characterized by Pinus-Laevgatomonoleti-Amaranthaceae-Artemisia, having a cold, dry climate; the middle zone (7.5–2.5 ka BP) features Quercus-Juglans-Polygonum-Cyperaceae, with a warm and humid climate; and the upper zone (2.5 ka BP to present) consists of Pinus-Quercus-Betula, indicating a cold and dry climate. Furthermore, field lithostratigraphic observations of the two black soil profiles suggest that late Pleistocene loessial clay serves as the parent material in this region. Quaternary geology, section lithology, palynology, and AMS 14C dating results indicate that a significant portion of black soil in the Xingkai Lake Plain was primarily formed during the Great Warm Period following the middle Holocene. These insights not only enhance our understanding of Holocene climate dynamics in Northeast China but also provide a substantial scientific foundation for further studies on related topics.

1. Introduction

Black soil has emerged as a critical information carrier for unraveling Quaternary environmental evolution due to its high organic matter content and continuous depositional characteristics. Recent breakthroughs in integrated multi-proxy research systems (e.g., AMS 14C dating, pollen analysis, and geochemistry) have significantly advanced comparative studies on the formation mechanisms of black soils worldwide [1,2]. Studies on black soils in Northeast China reveal that the typical black soils in the Songnen Plain were formed during the late Holocene, with pollen assemblages indicating a herb-shrub-dominated sparsely forested steppe landscape during this period [3,4,5]. Palynological studies of peat deposits in the Sanjiang Plain [6,7,8] reveal the following four distinct Holocene climatic phases: During the period 12,000–9500 yr BP, Betula shrub forest dominated the vegetation, indicating a cool and slightly humid climate. From 9500 to 5000 yr BP, temperate broadleaf forests became prevalent, reflecting a warm and humid regime. Between 5000 and 2500 yr BP, temperate broadleaf forests persisted but under colder temperatures and cold-wet conditions, suggesting climatic deterioration. After 2500 yr BP, Pinus koraiensis (Korean pine) forests emerged, marking a cold and humid phase. However, the evolution of the four major global black soil regions exhibits significant regional differentiation. For instance, the black soils of the East European Plain demonstrate both long-term (interglacial phases spanning the entire Holocene) and short-term (distinct climatic intervals within the Holocene) developmental trends. The “maturation” of black soils in the Crimean Peninsula occurred between 1800 and 1600 yr BP [9]. In contrast, black soils in the Mississippi River Basin of the United States exhibit an aeolian dust accumulation pattern of pedogenesis [10]. The Pampas grasslands’ black soils primarily formed during 9–6 ka BP, a period marked by stable climate conditions with minimal flood or drought events [11]. Reliable chronological results and precise climate proxies serve as the scientific foundation for determining the timing of black soil formation and reconstructing their evolutionary trajectories. This study encompasses an examination of the environmental conditions during its formation and the subsequent processes of change, while also investigating the mechanisms underlying the formation and evolution of black soil. This research is significant for informing strategies aimed at protecting and restoring black soil.

2. Overview of the Study Area

The Xingkai Lake Plain is situated within one of the world’s four major black soil regions [12,13], encompassing an area of approximately 10,000 km2 in Northeast China. This plain is bordered by Xingkai Lake to the south, Wanda Mountain to the north, Ussuri River to the east, and Taiping mountain range and Nadanhada mountain range to the west. The typical black soil profiles are found in the southern and central sections of the Xingkai Lake Plain. The terrain exhibits a high elevation in the west that gradually descends towards the east, with a similar pattern from north to south. Overall, there is a northwest-to-southeast gradient in topography characterized by complex changes and diverse landforms predominantly consisting of plains. The region experiences a cold temperate continental monsoon climate marked by long winters with minimal snowfall; summers are short but warm and rainy; springs tend to be windy and dry; while autumns feature rapid cooling accompanied by rainfall. The average annual temperature is recorded at 3.8 °C with an average annual precipitation of 585.5 mm—most occurring between June and August—and a freezing period lasting approximately 180 days (from November to April) [14]. The natural vegetation of the Xingkai Lake Plain exhibits distinct habitat gradient differentiation, primarily comprising temperate coniferous-broadleaf mixed forests and extensive swamp–wetland ecosystems [15]. The dominant species composition is characterized as follows: (1) Temperate coniferous-broadleaf mixed forests are dominated by constructive Pinus koraiensis and Quercus, with characteristic conifers including Pinus sylvestris var. Mongolica and Larix gmelinii, accompanied by broadleaf components such as Tilia amurensis, Fraxinus mandshurica, and Corylus mandshurica, forming critical communities sustaining regional biodiversity [16]. (2) Swamp vegetation features dominant species Phragmites australis and Typha orientalis, with diagnostic companion species including Carex lasiocarpa, Scirpus triqueter, and Juncus effusus, exhibiting spatial patterns strongly regulated by seasonal hydrological fluctuations [17]. (3) Wetland herbaceous communities are predominantly characterized by Carex spp. (including C. appendiculata and C. pseudocuraica) and Calamagrostis angustifolia, frequently intermixed with hygrophytes such as Caltha palustris and Menyanthes trifoliata, indicating shallow eutrophic aquatic habitats [18]. This vegetation classification system integrates recent regional ecological surveys and flora studies, establishing a robust modern analog framework for paleoenvironmental reconstruction using pollen assemblages.
There are two typical black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain black soil area, which are MSD1601 and HLD1601 (Figure 1a,b), with geographic coordinates of 132°17′46.61″ E, 45°24′2.06″ N and 133°08′45.78″ E, 46°01′21.49″ N, respectively. The land use type of both profiles is cropland.

3. Material and Methods

3.1. Sampling

The black soil profiles of the Xingkai Lake Plain, HLD1601 and MSD1601, exhibit depths of 1.80 m and 1.42 m, respectively. A total of 14 pollen samples and 9 AMS radiocarbon dating samples were collected from these sites.

3.2. Radiocarbon Analyses

The preparation and testing of AMS radiocarbon dating samples were conducted by the Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Geological Science Institute. The accelerator mass spectrometer (NEC 1.5SDH-1) was employed for AMS radiocarbon dating. For age correction, we utilized the internationally recognized CALIB version 7.0.4 (http://calib.org/calib/) to convert ages to BP (BP = 1950 AD) years [19].

3.3. Pollen Analyses

Prior to processing the samples, 50 g of samples was weighed, and stone pine (27,560/tablet) exotic spore markers were added to calculate the pollen concentration (grains/cm3). After chemical treatment with acid and alkali in the laboratory, samples underwent water changes to achieve neutrality before being subjected to centrifugation using a heavy liquid with a specific gravity greater than 2.1 for flotation. After removing the supernatant, it was then dehydrated by glacial acetic acid, cellulose was removed by an acetic anhydride-concentrated sulfuric acid mixture, it was centrifuged and exchanged for water for neutralization, and it was made into test tubes with glycerol for preservation. The number of pollen (in this context, “pollen” includes spores and pollen) identified per sample was more than 200. Based on the changes in the content of the main pollen types, the Xingkai Lake Plain 2 black soil profile was divided into pollen combination zones by Tilia software version 2.0.2 [20]. Additionally, the preparation and analysis of palynological samples were also performed by the same institute.

4. Results and Analyses

4.1. Lithostratigraphy and 14C Chronology

The upper part of the profiles is a layer of black and grayish black clay, and the lower part is a yellowish or yellow-brown sub-argillaceous clay. Based on field observations, sedimentary rock properties, and changes in color, the profiles were divided into layers, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2.
The dating results of two representative black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain (Table 3) indicate that the AMS radiocarbon calendar age increases with depth. An age-depth model was constructed using the R Bacon package [21], which automatically generated a modeled curve (Figure 2) based on chronological and depth data. Following calibration, the most recent black soil age obtained from this study is 2154 ± 149 yr BP from 0.30 m depth in the HLD1601 profile, while the oldest black soil age is determined to be 4281 ± 126 yr BP from 0.88 m depth in the HLD1601 profile, both of which were formed during the middle and late Holocene.

4.2. Division of Pollen Assemblage Bands and Their Characteristics

A total of 3294 palynological grains were identified from two representative black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain, encompassing pollen from 47 families and genera. The characteristics of the palynological assemblage zones in the HLD1601 profile (Figure 3) are described below.
The pollen assemblage in Zone I (188–140 cm) of HLD1601 is dominated by Pinus-Laevgatomonoleti-Amaranthaceae-Artemisia, containing two samples. The corresponding age is early Holocene (10,402–7922 yr BP). Pollen from woody plants (36.32–45.83%) and pteridophytes (27.78–51.89%) is predominant, while herbaceous plant pollen (11.79–26.39%) is less abundant. Among these, Pinus and Quercus represent the primary woody plant pollen; Laevgatomonoleti dominates among fern pollen; Amaranthaceae, Compositae, and Artemisia are the main representatives of herbaceous plants. Total pollen concentration is 159–301 grains/g.
The pollen assemblage in Zone II (140–70 cm) of HLD1601 is dominated by Quercus-Juglans-Polygonum-Cyperaceae with three samples present. This zone corresponds to the middle Holocene period (7922–3981 yr BP), where deciduous broad-leaved woody plant pollen constitutes 50.70–58.11%, herbaceous plant pollen accounts for 37.28–39.53%, and ferns make up 2.36–10.84%. The corresponding parent plants are Quercus and Juglans, and the contents of fern pollen in Poaceae, Polygonum and Cyperaceae, ferns are lower (2.36–10.84%) than those in combination Ⅰ. Total pollen concentration is 179–7553 grains/g.
The pollen assemblage in Zone III (70–0 cm) of HLD1601 is dominated by Quercus, and Betula, comprising three samples. Based on the results of carbon analysis and the regression equation relating age to profile depth, this zone corresponds to the late Holocene (3981 yr BP). The spore composition includes predominantly tree and shrub pollen (66.55–77.82%), followed by herbaceous pollen (22.18–30.93%) and ferns (0–2.52%). The primary woody plants are Pinus and Quercus, while Poaceae represent the main group of herbaceous plants; notably, the content of fern pollen was reduced compared with that of Combined Zone II. Total pollen concentration is 3049–9858 grains/g.
The pollen assemblage in Zone I (142–130 cm) of MSD1601 is dominated by Amaranthaceae-Artemisia-Humicidae, containing one sample (Figure 4). By comparing the results of 14C analysis and the regression equation of age and profile depth, it can be known that its age is the late Pleistocene (13,969–12,960 yr BP). It is mainly composed of herbaceous plant pollen (69.44%), woody plant sporophytes (21.30%), and fern pollen is relatively low (9.26%). The pollen zone has a high abundance of xerophytic plant pollen such as Amaranthaceae and Artemisia, and a small amount of the aquatic plant Typha occurs. Total pollen concentration is 29 grains/g.
The pollen assemblage in Zone II (130–110 cm) of MSD1601 is dominated by Pinus-Quercus-Artemisia, containing one sample. By comparing the results of 14C analysis and the regression equation of age and profile depth, it can be determined that its age is the late Pleistocene (12,960–10,918 yr BP). It is mainly composed of woody plant pollen (82.78%), while the content of fern pollen (4.72%) and herbaceous plant pollen (12.5%) is relatively low. This pollen zone has a high abundance of xerophytic plant pollen such as Amaranthaceae and Artemisia, and a small amount of the aquatic plant Typha occurs. Woody plants in this pollen zone are dominated by Pinus and Quercus, and herbaceous plants are dominated by Artemisia and Humulaceae. Total pollen concentration is 94 grains/g.
The pollen assemblage in Zone III (110–75 cm) of MSD1601 is dominated by Amaranthaceae-Artemisia-Monosulcate, containing two samples. By comparing the results of 14C analysis and the regression equation of age and profile depth, it can be determined that its age is the early Holocene (10,918–7354 yr BP). It is mainly composed of woody plant pollen (23.08–49.54%) and fern pollen (35.78–62.90%), while the content of herbaceous plant pollen is relatively low (14.03–14.68%). The woody plants in this pollen zone are mainly Pinus and Quercus; the herbaceous plants are mainly Poaceae, Polygonaceae, and Cyperaceae; and the content of fern pollen is higher than that in Assemblage Zone I. Total pollen concentration is 38–184 grains/g.
The pollen assemblage in Zone IV (75–0 cm) of MSD1601 is dominated by Quercus-Ulmus-Monosulcate pollen, containing two samples. By comparing the results of 14C analysis and the regression equation of age and profile depth, it can be determined that its age is the middle to late Holocene (since 7354 yr BP). It is mainly composed of woody plant pollen (51.26–73.27%), while the contents of herbaceous plant pollen (12.44–16.97%) and fern pollen (14.29–31.77%) are relatively low. The woody plants in this pollen zone are mainly deciduous Quercus and Pinus, the herbaceous plants are mainly Cyperaceae, and the content of fern pollen is lower than that in Assemblage Zone II. Total pollen concentration is 890–934 grains/g.

5. Discussion

5.1. Investigation of the Formation Age of Black Soil in the Xingkai Lake Plain

The 14C dating results of black soil profiles in this study define the minimum age for black soil formation, as the stable component of soil organic carbon is 75 to 3000 years older than total organic carbon [22,23]. This study revealed that the black soil layer thicknesses at two profiles are 0.88 m (HLD1601) and 0.45 m (MSD1601), respectively, and the maximum ages obtained are 4281 ± 126 yr BP and 4127 ± 118 yr BP, both approximately similar at around 4300 yr BP. According to the latest international geological time scale (2023), it is concluded that the black soil in the Xingkai Lake Plain formed during the middle Holocene, aligning with the assertion of Cui et al. [23] that Northeast China’s black soil primarily developed during the Great Warm Period since the middle Holocene (8500 yr BP).
Based on the thickness of the black soil layer and the age of the old black soil in the two profiles, it can be deduced that the soil formation rate of the black soil in profile HLD1601 is 17.46 cm/millennium, and the soil formation rate of the black soil in profile MSD1601 is 9.62 cm/millennium. According to Whalen et al.’s [24] theory of soil formation, differences in microtopography-driven epigenetic processes are the main controlling factors for the differentiation of soil formation rates under the conditions of similar parent material types (all loess-like clays), climatic backgrounds (middle Holocene Warm-Humid Period), and the time of soil formation (ca. 4300 a BP). The HLD1601 profile is located in the plains with an elevation of 66.20 m, whereas the MSD1601 profile is located in the transition zone from the mountains to the plains with an elevation of 80.20 m (Figure 1a,b). The lower elevation and gentle microtopography of HLD1601 slow down the rate of erosion, which is conducive to the accumulation of organic matter, and the anaerobic environment favorable for the preservation of organic matter is formed by the recharge of groundwater [25]. The high topography of MSD1601 exacerbated the erosion of precipitation runoff, accelerated the migration of fine particulate matter, and led to the continuous loss of soil-forming materials. Thus, differences in microtopography and vegetation types may account for variations in pedogenic rates between these two profiles [26].

5.2. Holocene Paleovegetation and Paleoclimate Evolution in the Xingkai Lake Plain

5.2.1. Pollen Assemblage of the HLD1601 Profile: Reflections on Paleovegetation and Paleoclimate Evolution

Combination zone I of the HLD1601 profile (180–140 cm; 10,402–7922 yr BP) reveals an average palynological composition comprising 41.08% woody plants, 39.83% fern pollen, and 19.09% herbaceous pollen (Figure 3). The dominance of cold and dry pine species is evident; additionally, xerophytic taxa such as Amaranthaceae and Artemisia are prevalent among herbaceous pollen. This indicates a mixed coniferous-broadleaf forest ecosystem under cold and dry climatic conditions.
In combination zone II of the HLD1601 profile (140–70 cm; 7922–3981 yr BP), the average palynological content shifts to 53.67% woody plants, 38.42% herbaceous plants, and 7.91% ferns. Notably, Quercus species that prefer humid environments dominate this zone’s palynophytes; meanwhile, warm-humid-loving families such as Seperaceae become more prominent, while Amaranthaceae and Artemisia decrease in representation. This suggests a transition to warmer and wetter climatic conditions compared to combination zone I, with vegetation characterized by coniferous broadleaf grassland reflecting these changes.
Combination zone III of the HLD1601 profile (70–0 cm; post–3981 yr BP) exhibits an average palynological composition consisting of 72.26% woody plants, 26.30% herbaceous plants, and only 1.44% fern pollen. In this pollen assemblage zone dominated by cold-adapted Pinus trees alongside significant proportions of humidity-preferring Quercus, herbaceous plant contributions overall decline, indicating that, during this period, the vegetation was likely composed of mixed coniferous-broadleaf forests primarily featuring Pinus and Quercus under continued cold-dry climate conditions.

5.2.2. Paleovegetation and Paleoclimate Evolution Reflected by the MDS1601 Pollen Assemblage

MSD1601 assemblage zone I (142–130 cm; 13,969–12,740 yr BP) reveals a palynological composition of 69.44% herbaceous plants, 21.30% woody plants, and 9.26% fern pollen. It is evident that the pollen zone is dominated by the arid Amaranthaceae and Artemisia (Figure 4). The vegetation is characterized by sparsely forested grassland, which is controlled by the East Asian monsoon and has a cold and dry climate [27].
MSD1601 assemblage zone II (142–110 cm; 12,740–10,918 yr BP) reveals a palynological composition of 82.78% woody plants, 12.5% herbaceous plants, and 4.72% fern pollen. The pollen zone can be seen to be dominated by cool-drying Pinus, and herbaceous pollen can be seen to be dominated by arid Artemisia. The vegetation showed mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests, and the climate was colder and drier than that of assemblage zone I, which may be indicative of the response of the Xingkai Lake Plain to the Younger Dryas (YD) event [28]. During this period, temperatures sharply declined by approximately 12 °C across most regions, resulting in a colder and drier environment [29].
In MSD1601 combination zone III (110–75 cm; 10,918–7354 yr BP), the average palynological content consists of 36.31% woody plants, 14.35% herbaceous plants, and 49.34% ferns. The pollen in this zone remains dominated by cold-adapted pine trees, while herbaceous contributions are primarily from xerophytic families like Xerophyllaceae and Artemisia. Proximity to Xingkai Lake likely accounts for the elevated presence of pteridophyte pollen due to continuous water flow transporting fern pollen from surrounding basins into deposition areas near the lake [30]. The assemblage zone showed an increase in the content of fern spores from bottom to top, which may indicate that the climate warmed and rainfall increased at this time [27]. It is inferred that, during this time period, vegetation was characterized by mixed coniferous-broadleaf forests predominantly featuring Pinus and Quercus species within a cold-dry climate.
MSD1601 assemblage zone IV (70–0 cm; post–7354 yr BP) exhibits an average palynological composition comprising 62.27% woody plants, 14.70% herbaceous plants, and 23.03% fern pollen. This zone is primarily composed of humidity-preferring Quercus alongside cold-tolerant Pinus; however, herbaceous plant representation includes warm-humid-loving families such as Seperaceae, with reduced occurrences of xerophytic Amaranthaceae and Artemisia pollen present as well. It is speculated that, during this phase, the vegetation type consisted mainly of mixed coniferous-broadleaf forests dominated by Pinus and Quercus under warmer humid climatic conditions.

5.2.3. Discussion on Holocene Paleovegetation Climate Evolution in Xingkai Lake Plain

A comprehensive analysis of HLD1601 and MSD1601 profiles indicates that the climatic evolution of the Xingkai Lake Plain during the Holocene underwent three distinct phases, which are cold-dry, warm-wet, and cold-dry. Previous studies on Hani Lake 400 km from the study site [31] revealed that early Holocene conditions were characterized by a wet and cold climate from 10,000 to 8200 yr BP, marking a warming phase. The middle Holocene (8000–2000 yr BP) represented a significant warm period with warm and humid conditions, consistent with palynological findings reported by Xia [6] in Sanjiang Plain. In contrast, the late Holocene marked the onset of cooling following this Great Warm Period. The Holocene climate change in China, as recorded by ice cores, oceans, lakes, and stalagmites [32,33,34,35] with high resolution, went through three phases. The early Holocene was a transitional stage before the onset of the high-temperature period after the last glacial period, when the climate was predominantly cold and dry, and it gradually transitioned to warm and humid. The middle Holocene was the warmest and wettest stage in the Holocene (11.7 ka BP), with a favorable climate. The late Holocene climate shifted from warm and wet to cold and dry. In summary, climatic changes in the Xingkai Lake Plain during the Holocene can be categorized into the following three main phases: cold and dry, warm and wet, then cold and dry.

5.3. Black Soil Formation in Xingkai Lake Plain

The formation and evolution of black soil in the Xingkai Lake Plain result from various factors, including climate, biology, parent material, topography, and age. In the late Pleistocene, neotectonic movements differentiated the crust and created extensive gentle slopes in the region [36], facilitating groundwater burial and promoting black soil formation. The northern shoreline of Xingkai Lake receded between 17 and 15 ka BP [37], exposing fluvial-lacustrine loessial clay deposited during the late Pleistocene as important parent material for black soil development.
Following the last cold period known as the Younger Dryas, significant Holocene climate changes following from the last cold period (The Younger Dryas) have been discussed by previous researchers [38,39,40]. In the Xingkai Lake Plain, the Holocene climate change affected the hydrothermal conditions, controlled the distribution of vegetation, and affected the accumulation of organic matter. The warm and humid climate period since the middle of the Holocene was also the main period of black soil formation and evolution in the area.
During the early Holocene (11.7–7.5 ka BP), Northeast China experienced a predominantly cool climate [41], and the continuous permafrost formed in the late Pleistocene had yet to melt [42]. At this time, climatic conditions and frozen soil distribution were not conducive to black soil deposition, resulting in no formation of black soil within the Xingkai Lake Plain.
In contrast, the middle Holocene (7.5–2.5 ka BP), also referred to as the Great Warm Period, saw a gradual warming and humidification of the climate in the Xingkai Lake Plain. The rapid melting of permafrost over several years created favorable hydrothermal conditions for black soil development while promoting plant growth, thereby supplying ample organic material for accumulation. During warm and humid summers, grassland and meadow vegetation thrived; however, sharp temperature drops in late autumn led to die-off at surface levels. In winter, low temperatures inhibited organic matter decomposition, facilitating humus accumulation [3]. During this period, the region’s temperate monsoon climate, marked by four distinct seasons, facilitated the accumulation and preservation of substantial organic matter in the soil. This process ultimately resulted in the development of a deep, dark-colored, and friable black soil layer [5]. Pollen samples collected from this section indicate that plant assemblages primarily consisted of Poaceae, Polygonaceae, and Quercus species within coniferous broadleaf steppe vegetation, suggesting a warm-humid paleoclimate at that time (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Thus, climatic conditions during the middle Holocene significantly favored black soil accumulation in the Xingkai Lake Plain, marking an apex period for its formation.
In the late Holocene (2.5 ka BP to present), the overall uplift of the vast area of the Xingkai Lake Plain was 3–5 m [34]. This uplift, combined with insufficient lake water supply and climatic influences, has led to a further reduction in Xingkai Lake’s size [43]. The black soil in the elevated plains was subject to soil and water erosion, affecting deposition rates. Pollen analysis indicates that coniferous forests dominate this region, accompanied by Amaranthaceae, Artemisia, and Asteraceae shrubs, suggesting a cold and dry climate during this period.
Previous studies [3] on black soil formation in the Songnen Plain reveal that typical black soil emerged around 7.5 ka BP, developing under warm and wet Holocene conditions, consistent with findings from this study. A comparative analysis of climatic environments suggests similarities between black soils in both plains; however, their formation processes underwent the following three distinct stages of climate change: cold and dry, warm and wet, and cold and dry. However, black soil in the Songnen Plain began to form earlier than in the Xingkai Lake Plain, which is in line with the conclusion of previous authors [23] that the age of black soil formation from the south to the north ranges from the oldest to the newest.
In this study, a total of 14 pollen samples were obtained from two profiles, which revealed the coupling trend between Holocene climate change and black soil formation, but it still suffered from the deficiency of precision. In the next step, samples such as magnetization rate will be collected at 2 cm intervals to further study the climatic environment in which the black soil formed.

6. Conclusions

(1)
A comprehensive comparative analysis of AMS 14C dating results from the two soil profiles indicates that black soil in the Xingkai Lake Plain primarily formed during the Great Warm Period of the middle Holocene, particularly around 4300 yr BP, which marks a significant phase in its development. Terrain and geomorphology are likely key factors influencing the pedogenic rates of these black soil profiles.
(2)
The typical black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain can be categorized into the following three palynological assemblages from bottom to top: the lower section is characterized by Pinus-Laevgatomonoleti-Amaranthaceae and Artemisia; the middle section features Quercus-Juglans-Polygonum and Cyperaceae; while the upper section includes Pinus-Quercus-Betula. This stratification suggests that climate has transitioned through three stages (cold-dry, warm-wet, and cold-dry) since the onset of the Holocene.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.Z., H.S., X.L. (Xiangxi Lv), W.P. (Wenlong Pang), X.L. (Xin Li), Y.L., and J.S.; methodology, H.Z., H.S., X.L. (Xin Li), Y.L., and J.S.; writing—original draft, H.Z.; writing—review and editing, H.Z., X.L. (Xiangxi Lv), W.P. (Wenlong Pang), and W.P. (Wenjun Pang). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Projects under the China Geological Survey (No. DD20242039 and ZD20220859).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Wang Pan from the Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, for his guidance in processing the palynological data.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of black soil profile in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Figure 1. Location of black soil profile in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
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Figure 2. Age-depth model of the Xingkai Lake Plain black soil profiles.
Figure 2. Age-depth model of the Xingkai Lake Plain black soil profiles.
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Figure 3. Pollen content (%) and zonation of HLD1601 black soil profile.
Figure 3. Pollen content (%) and zonation of HLD1601 black soil profile.
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Figure 4. Pollen content (%) and zonation of the MSD1601 black soil profile.
Figure 4. Pollen content (%) and zonation of the MSD1601 black soil profile.
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Table 1. Description of the HLD1601 black soil profile in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Table 1. Description of the HLD1601 black soil profile in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Depth/cm Surface LayerStratification Situation ConditionDetailed Description
0~27AGrayish black loam, with granular structure, dry, moderately compact, and numerous root systems visible.
27~88ABBlack clay, with granular structure, slightly humid, moderately compact, and a few roots visible.
88~180CYellowish brown clay, with massive structure, moist, compact, and no root systems were observed.
Table 2. Description of MSD1601 black soil profile in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Table 2. Description of MSD1601 black soil profile in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Depth/cm Surface LayerStratification Situation ConditionDetailed Description
0~45ABlack loam, with granular structure, slightly moist, compact, and numerous root systems visible.
45~83ABGrayish black–taupe clay, with granular structure, slightly moist, slightly compact, and no root systems were observed.
83~142CYellowish brown clay, featuring a massive structure, moist, compact, and with no root systems observable.
Table 3. AMS 14C dating results of two black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Table 3. AMS 14C dating results of two black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain.
Sample No.Depth/mDating MaterialsAge */yr BPCalibrated Age #/cal. yr BP
HLD1601-14C10.30Organic carbon2140 ± 302154 ± 149
HLD1601-14C20.88Organic carbon3850 ± 304281 ± 126
HLD1601-14C31.50Organic carbon7785 ± 458543 ± 99
HLD1601-14C41.80Organic carbon9230 ± 6010,402 ± 130
MSD1601-14C10.45Organic carbon3780 ± 304127 ± 118
MSD1601-14C20.60Organic carbon4675 ± 305447 ± 126
MSD1601-14C30.83Organic carbon8150 ± 509139 ± 147
MSD1601-14C40.96Organic carbon8305 ± 509290 ± 154
MSD1601-14C51.42Organic carbon12,130 ± 8013,969 ± 214
* Traditional 14C age calculated using the fraction (FM) relative to modern (1950) atmospheric 14C activity with a half-life of 5568a; # dendrochronologically calibrated 14C age.
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Zhang, H.; Song, H.; Lv, X.; Pang, W.; Pang, W.; Li, X.; Li, Y.; Shao, J. Holocene Climate Shifts Driving Black Soil Formation in NE China: Palynology and AMS14C Dating Insights. Quaternary 2025, 8, 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030041

AMA Style

Zhang H, Song H, Lv X, Pang W, Pang W, Li X, Li Y, Shao J. Holocene Climate Shifts Driving Black Soil Formation in NE China: Palynology and AMS14C Dating Insights. Quaternary. 2025; 8(3):41. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030041

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Hongwen, Haiwei Song, Xiangxi Lv, Wenlong Pang, Wenjun Pang, Xin Li, Yingxue Li, and Jiliang Shao. 2025. "Holocene Climate Shifts Driving Black Soil Formation in NE China: Palynology and AMS14C Dating Insights" Quaternary 8, no. 3: 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030041

APA Style

Zhang, H., Song, H., Lv, X., Pang, W., Pang, W., Li, X., Li, Y., & Shao, J. (2025). Holocene Climate Shifts Driving Black Soil Formation in NE China: Palynology and AMS14C Dating Insights. Quaternary, 8(3), 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030041

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