Abstract
Background and Objectives: Dietary vitamin E intake has high rates of inadequacies in Latin America, which may be potentially associated with increased cardiovascular risk. The objective of this study was to compare vitamin E intake and plasma vitamin E concentrations among cardiovascular disease risk factor (CVDR) groups from adults living in the urban area of São Paulo, Brazil. Methods: Data from 198 individuals aged 18 to 59 years were obtained from the 2015 Health Survey of São Paulo, a population-based cross-sectional study. Dietary intake was measured using two 24 h dietary recalls, and the usual dietary intake of vitamin E was calculated using the Multiple Source Method. Blood samples were analyzed to obtain plasma vitamin E concentration, serum lipid profile, insulin, and fasting glucose. Blood pressure, weight, and height were collected, and body mass index was calculated. CVDR was categorized as having three or more conditions: obesity, elevated systolic or diastolic blood pressure, dyslipidemia, and high fasting plasma glucose or insulin resistance. Student’s t-test assessed comparisons between vitamin E values in groups of cardiovascular risk factors. Results: The mean intake of vitamin E was 6.43 mg/d, which was equivalent to 53.65% of the EAR reference values. Ninety eight percent of the sample had dietary inadequacy of vitamin E. Mean plasma α-tocopherol was 19.98 μmol/L. The majority of the sample was female (57.6%), and 29.1% had three or more CVDR. Plasma values of α-tocopherol differed between individuals with three or more CVDR (mean: 21.86; SD: 9.16 μmol/L) compared to those with less than three CVDR (mean: 29.24; SD: 7.30 μmol/L), observing t(196) = −1.87, p = 0.003. There were no statistical differences in vitamin E intake between CVDR groups. Discussion: Our findings showed the severe inadequacy of vitamin E intake in the adult population of São Paulo. Moreover, individuals with higher numbers of CVDR had lower plasma values of vitamin E, which may indicate a necessity to increase vitamin E intake in individuals at higher risk. These results are particularly worrying, given the preventive function vitamin E intake may provide for individuals at higher cardiovascular risk.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, M.L.C., C.H.S. and R.M.F.; methodology M.L.C., P.V.F. and J.L.P.; formal analysis M.L.C. and P.V.F.; investigation, M.L.C. and C.H.S.; resources, M.M.R., F.M.S. and R.M.F.; writing—original draft preparation, M.L.C.; writing—review and editing, J.L.P., C.H.S., M.M.R., F.M.S. and R.M.F.; supervision, C.H.S., M.M.R., F.M.S. and R.M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by São Paulo Research Foundation—FAPESP, grant numbers: 2017/05125-7 and 2022/14601-5.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of University of São Paulo (protocol code 5.994.196).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
Data is available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).