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Communication

Strategies for Broodstock Farming in Arid Environments: Rearing Juvenile Seriola lalandi in a Low-Cost RAS

by
Renzo Pepe-Victoriano
1,2,3,*,
Piera Pepe-Vargas
1,
Elizabeth Borquez-Segovia
1,
Jordan I. Huanacuni
4,*,
Héctor Aravena-Ambrosetti
1,
Felipe Méndez-Abarca
1,
Juan Zenón Resurrección-Huertas
5 and
Luis Antonio Espinoza-Ramos
6
1
Área de Biología Marina y Acuicultura, Facultad de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique 101000, Chile
2
Núcleo de Investigación Aplicada e Innovación en Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique 110939, Chile
3
Grupo de Investigación Acuicultura Sostenible, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Tacna 23000, Peru
4
Facultad de Ciencias, Campus Tacna, Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Tacna 23004, Peru
5
Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Acuícola, Facultad de Ingeniería Pesquera, Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Huacho 15135, Peru
6
Escuela de Ingeniería Pesquera, Factultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Tacna 23004, Peru
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fishes 2025, 10(11), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10110579
Submission received: 1 October 2025 / Revised: 6 November 2025 / Accepted: 7 November 2025 / Published: 10 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Aquaculture)
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Abstract

This study evaluated the feasibility of culturing Seriola lalandi in a low-cost recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) in an arid region of northern Chile, aiming to establish strategies for broodstock farming and diversify national aquaculture. The system was designed as a low-cost recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) built with locally available materials, such as galvanized corrugated steel panels and flexible plastic liners, instead of specialized aquaculture tanks. Its modular configuration, based on gravity-fed filtration using sedimentation, sand, and disc filters, allows efficient water reuse with minimal energy consumption and a daily water turnover of 12 times the total volume. This design significantly reduced construction and operational costs, making it a feasible option for aquaculture development in arid regions with limited water resources. Over an 8-month period, 46 S. lalandi individuals were used, and the results showed successful physiological adaptation of the specimens to confinement, as evidenced by low mortality, progressive acceptance of formulated feed, and sustained growth. Individual weights progressively increased, with averages ranging from 675 to 1435 g, and the specific growth rate (SGR) fluctuated between 0.14 and 0.43% per day. Fulton’s condition factor (K) remained in an adequate range between 2.4 and 2.8, suggesting good physical condition of the sampled individuals. Water quality within the RAS system was maintained within acceptable parameters, although a strong negative correlation between temperature and dissolved oxygen was recorded (Spearman coefficient = −0.71, p < 0.001), highlighting the importance of monitoring these factors in warm environments. The lack of adequate protocols for the adaptation of marine species in arid areas, such as northern Chile, has limited aquaculture development in these regions. This study addresses this problem by assessing the feasibility of a low-cost recirculating system (RAS) for the cultivation of S. lalandi under conditions of water scarcity, with the aim of diversifying the national aquaculture in arid zones.
Keywords:
aquaculture; growth parameters; kingfish; recirculation aquaculture system; yellowtail
Key Contribution: This study evaluated the feasibility of using low-cost recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) for farming Seriola lalandi in arid regions of Chile. This highlights successful physiological adaptation, sustained growth, and acceptance of the formulated feed, offering a replicable protocol for conditioning marine species.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

In Chile, aquaculture is one of the areas where significant public and private efforts have been invested, making it one of the most dynamic and important sectors of the national economy [1]. It is mainly carried out in coastal marine areas and, to a lesser extent, in freshwater environments associated with rivers and lakes. As of 2023, more than 1000 marine farming centers have been registered in the National Aquaculture Registry, with an average area of 9 hectares per center [2]. The main farming activities are concentrated in the southern regions of Los Lagos (41°28′18″ S, 72°56′12″ W), Aysén (45°34′12″ S, 72°03′58″ W), and Magallanes (53°09′45″ S, 70°55′21″ W), and mostly involve the cultivation of salmonid species. The need to diversify aquaculture and the high-value resources it generates in different geographic areas of the country makes the development of new fish species farming in Chile a top priority. Such diversification also represents an opportunity for economic diversification in regions historically underutilized for aquaculture, such as northern Chile, where geographic and climatic conditions pose specific challenges for the implementation of farming systems.
The Arica and Parinacota Region (18°28′30″ S, 70°18′51″ W), located in the far north of Chile, is characterized as an arid area, with virtually no rainfall throughout the year and an average environmental temperature of approximately 18 °C. These conditions, along with scarce water resources, have contributed to low aquaculture activity in the area [3,4], making it necessary to design productive strategies adapted to contexts with high water and climatic constraints.
Seriola lalandi, known globally as yellowtail kingfish or amberjack and in Chile as “vidriola”, “palometa”, “dorado”, or “toremo”, is a very active pelagic marine fish belonging to the family Carangidae. It is found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans [5,6]. It is easily recognizable by its deeply forked and bright yellow caudal fins. Its body transitions from a purplish-blue color on the back to silvery white on the belly. It is elongated and moderately compressed, with a brass-colored band running along the body from the mouth to the tail [7,8]. This species can grow up to 2.5 m in length and weigh up to 70 kg [9].
Currently, several species of the Seriola genus are farmed commercially and are at different stages of development in numerous countries because of their rapid growth, good feed conversion, and high acceptance in international markets [10]. S. lalandi has been successfully established in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand [11]. In Chile, this species has gained relevance as part of efforts to diversify the national aquaculture. The University of Antofagasta was a pioneer in achieving broodstock conditioning in land-based systems, obtaining the first spawning events between 2006 and 2007. Later, Fundación Chile and Acuinor consolidated juvenile production, with the latter continuing to develop this activity.
Controlled reproduction of S. lalandi in captivity has been extensively studied in countries such as Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, where successful protocols for gonadal maturation and induced spawning through photothermal manipulation or hormonal administration have been developed [12,13]. Under controlled conditions, this species exhibits a reproductive cycle that can be artificially adjusted, allowing for multiple spawning events per year and high fertilization rates once broodstock reach adequate physiological conditions. However, the effectiveness of these methods strongly depends on environmental, nutritional, and stress management factors during confinement, which poses a particular challenge in arid zones where thermal conditions and water availability limit environmental control [14]. In this context, understanding and optimizing the reproductive conditions of S. lalandi in closed systems is an essential step to ensure sustainable larval and juvenile production in regions facing water constraints.
In this context, the National Council for Innovation and Competitiveness (CNIC), through the Program for the Diversification of Chilean Aquaculture (PDACH), identified S. lalandi as a promising option for promoting the farming of new species in the country, especially in regions facing challenging conditions, such as northern Chile. Therefore, the capture, transport, and conditioning of broodstock in tanks, along with the development of farming technology for S. lalandi, represent decisive and crucial steps toward improving the sustainable diversification of aquaculture. These studies and trials offer the advantage of enhancing confinement adaptation and domestication of commercially valuable species for human consumption [15].
One alternative for fish farming in arid zones is the use of closed Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) [16], whose main feature is water reuse and conservation. In addition, they reduce disease transmission and spread and significantly minimize environmental contamination. RAS allows for more efficient production scheduling independent of seasonality and can be used for various developmental stages of both freshwater and marine organisms across a variety of species [17]. Considering these aspects, previous studies have described aquaculture in the Arica and Parinacota Region as a high-potential productive option [18].
Despite the potential of S. lalandi as an aquaculture species, significant knowledge gaps limit its cultivation under recirculating conditions in arid regions. These gaps include a lack of information on the adaptation of broodstock to confinement systems, especially in water-scarce areas such as northern Chile. In addition, efficient water management in low-cost RAS systems remains a critical constraint owing to water resource constraints in these areas. This study specifically addresses these gaps, seeking to offer practical solutions for the adaptation of broodstock to extreme conditions and optimize water use in aquaculture production in arid regions.
This study focused on evaluating the feasibility of cultivating S. lalandi, a promising species for aquaculture, in a low-cost recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) adapted to the arid conditions of northern Chile. The main objective of this study was to explore conditioning strategies for the broodstock of this species in an environment with limited water resources to diversify national aquaculture and promote its development in regions with geographical and climatic limitations.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This study was conducted at La Capilla Beach (18°32′13.71″ S, 70°19′33.81″ W), located 10 km south of the city of Arica in the Arica and Parinacota Region of northern Chile (Figure 1). All procedures and animal handling described in this study were carried out according to the ethical review of research protocols and their supporting documents by the Scientific Ethics Committee—Aquainnova Ltda (Res. 002-2017).

2.2. Recirculating Aquaculture System

S. lalandi was cultivated in a Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) (Figure 2). A cylindrical farming tank with a 75 m3 capacity was used, constructed from hot-dip galvanized corrugated steel sheets, assembled using high-strength bolts, and mounted on a concrete base. The structural joints were sealed with flexible asphalt tape cured at room temperature to ensure watertightness of the system. To contain seawater, the interior of the tank was lined with 1 mm thick plastic sheeting, in compliance with the ASTM D751 standards. The tank had a diameter of 7.4 m and a water column height of 1.76 m. To reduce direct light incidence, an 80% shaded black mesh cover was installed. The system operated under natural photoperiod and temperature conditions during the study.
The system maintained continuous recirculation of seawater, driven by two 1.5 hp centrifugal pumps (Reggio, Parramatta, NSW, Australia, model SM 150). Water quality was preserved through physical and biological treatments aimed at removing suspended solids and nitrogen compounds, particularly ammonia, before recirculating the water back into the culture tanks. Solid removal followed a linear treatment sequence, including a 5 m3 sedimentation tank, followed by a sand filter (Hayward, model S360T2, distributed by Blupools, Lakewood, NJ, USA) and a disc filter (Azud, Murcia, Spain, model Modular 100). Ammonia removal was achieved using a biological biofilter with a volume of 5 m3, designed to handle a maximum biomass of 25 kg/m3. The relationship between the biofilter capacity and biomass allowed for the maintenance of optimal water quality conditions throughout the experiment. This low-cost design is scalable, as it can be adjusted to different crop sizes and is suitable for regions with limited water resources. To maintain adequate levels of dissolved oxygen, an air distribution network connected to a blower (Seawaters, model SST5, distributed by Pentair, Puerto Montt, Chile) was installed, providing continuous aeration through ceramic diffusers that were placed at the bottom of the water column. The total cost of the recirculating system considering its main components described above, including tanks, filters, pumps, blower, and biofilter, did not exceed 5000 U.S. dollars, reinforcing its affordability and potential for replicability in the development of aquaculture in arid zones with limited water resources.
This trial was conducted as a pre-commercial pilot culture; therefore, no experimental replicates were established, since the main objective was to validate the technical feasibility of the system and to evaluate the biological response of the specimens under real operating conditions. The system maintained a water exchange rate equivalent to 12 times the total tank volume per day, ensuring adequate renewal and stability of water quality throughout the experimental period.
The juvenile S. lalandi used in this study were obtained from the hatchery at the University of Antofagasta, 9 h south of the city of Arica. A total of 46 individuals, with an average initial length of 36.84 cm and an average initial weight of 675 g, corresponding to an initial total biomass of 31.05 kg, were used. These fish were conditioned for four weeks under controlled conditions before the start of the experiment. At the end of the culture period, the fish reached an average final length of 48.9 cm and an average final weight of 1435 g, indicating sustained growth throughout the study. The experimental population consisted of 19 females and 27 males, a ratio that remained stable during the entire experimental period. During this period, they were provided with a diet of fresh silverside and commercial pellets and allowed to acclimatize to the low-cost RAS. All 46 individuals were included in the final analysis.

2.3. Water Quality Parameters

Daily measurements of dissolved oxygen (mg/L) and temperature (°C) were conducted in the culture tank using an oxygen meter (YSI Pro20). Additionally, ammonia and nitrate levels were measured every five days, and pH every two days, using a multiparametric photometer (Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, RI, USA, model HI 83203). All measurements were taken from the side of the tank opposite the water inlet, following the aforementioned frequency for a total of eight months.
No microbiological analyses were conducted during the experiment, as the primary objective of this study was to evaluate the technical feasibility and physiological performance of S. lalandi under a low-cost recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) in arid conditions. The system operated continuously with mechanical and biological filtration, constant aeration, and a daily water exchange equivalent to 12 times the total tank volume, which ensured the stability of the physicochemical parameters of the water throughout the trial. For this reason, microbiological monitoring was not included in the experimental design, as it was not the main focus of the study.

2.4. Growth

Biweekly sampling was conducted to systematically evaluate and document organism growth. During each sampling session, the water column level in the main tank was lowered to facilitate fish capture and handling. Specimens were transferred to an auxiliary tank containing tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) at a concentration of 60 mg/L to minimize stress during the handling. After five minutes of exposure to the anesthetic, each fish was weighed using a precision digital scale (Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA, model MR6001), and its total length was recorded using an ichthyometer with 0.1 cm precision.
The fish were fed a mixed diet of fresh and dry feed daily. The fresh portion consisted of 400–500 g of silverside (Odontesthes regia) offered once per day, whereas the commercial dry feed was administered twice daily in portions of 300–400 g each. Table 1 shows the chemical composition values of the commercial feed formulated for marine broodstock (Skretting, NOVA ME 2000, Stavanger, Norway) and the fresh fish (Odontesthes regia) used during the conditioning of S. lalandi. In both cases, the percentages of crude protein, lipids, crude fiber, crude ash, moisture, and the energy value expressed in MJ/kg are reported.
Daily pellet rations were estimated at 4% of the total biomass in the tank, and the amount was adjusted biweekly based on biomass estimates obtained from fish weight measurements. To minimize errors in the estimation, average values of weight and length of the individuals were used, and the feed ration was recalculated as the fish grew larger. In addition, the acceptance of the food was verified daily to ensure adequate intake.
The combination of fresh silversides and commercial pellets was selected because of the carnivorous nature of S. lalandi, which benefits from diets with high energy density and high-quality proteins. Fresh silverside fish was chosen because it mimics the natural diet and is a rich source of essential nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids and protein. Commercial pellets, on the other hand, provide more balanced nutrition, with a guaranteed content of proteins, lipids, and essential micronutrients, ensuring a complete and adequate diet for the sustained growth of fish in the RAS system.
Growth variables were determined based on five parameters: specific growth rate (SGR), weight gain percentage (%WG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), survival rate (%S), and Fulton’s condition factor (K). The formulas and calculations for each parameter are as follows:

2.4.1. Specific Growth Rate (SGR)

The percentage of body weight gain per day was calculated as described by Ricker [20]:
SGR = ((ln Wf − ln Wi)/t) × 100
where
  • Wi = Initial weight
  • Wf = Final weight
  • t = Time (days)

2.4.2. Weight Gain Percentage (%WG)

Represents the difference between the final and initial biomasses relative to the initial weight [20], calculated as
%WG = [(Wf − Wi)/Wi] × 100

2.4.3. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

Indicates the weight gain of a farmed organism relative to the weight of the feed used:
FCR = Fc/Wg
where
  • Fc = Feed consumed (kg)
  • Wg = Weight gain (kg)

2.4.4. Survival Rate (%S)

Daily mortality per tank was determined and counted at the end of the trial to calculate the actual number of live fish.
%S = (nf/ni) × 100
where
  • ni = Initial number of individuals
  • nf = Final number of individuals

2.4.5. Fulton’s Condition Factor (K)

Used to assess the well-being or robustness of fish, especially during fry and juvenile stages.
K = 100 × (W/L3)
where
  • W = Wet body (g)
  • L = Length (cm)

2.5. Data Analysis

All statistical analyses were performed using RStudio (version 2024.09.0+375; RStudio, Inc., Washington, DC, USA; source: Peru). Normality and homogeneity of variances were assessed using the Anderson-Darling and Bartlett tests, respectively. Spearman and Mann–Kendall correlations were applied to examine associations between variables. Statistical significance was set at p-value < 0.05 [21]. Graphs were generated using the ggplot2 package in RStudio, version 2024.09.0+375, and the results are presented as mean ±standard deviation (SD).

3. Results

A total of 46 S. lalandi individuals were used at baseline. At the end of the experimental period, the number of fish remained at 46 because of a 100% survival rate. The environmental variables, specifically temperature and dissolved oxygen, exhibited clear temporal patterns during the experimental period. These fluctuations allowed for the evaluation of their potential influence on fish physiological performance and growth. Additionally, correlations between different water quality parameters, such as ammonia, nitrate, and pH, were analyzed to identify significant relationships that could affect the culture system.
In terms of production, key indicators such as weight, specific growth rate (SGR), and Fulton’s condition factor (K) were evaluated to characterize the zootechnical performance of S. lalandi during the conditioning phase of the experiment. The results provide a comprehensive overview of the species’ behavior under semi-controlled conditions and contribute to strengthening the knowledge of its biology in culture settings.

3.1. Water Quality

Figure 3 shows the average monthly variations in water temperature and dissolved oxygen during the study period. Temperature showed an increasing trend from April, peaking in July (approximately 19 °C), and subsequently decreasing to lower values in November (approximately 17 °C). In contrast, the dissolved oxygen concentration exhibited an inverse trend, with a maximum in April and May (approximately 7 mg/L), progressively decreasing to its lowest value in November (approximately 5.6 mg/L). The Mann–Kendall correlation between both variables was significant (τ = −0.589, p = 3.433 × 10−6), indicating a moderate negative relationship between temperature and dissolved oxygen over the study period.
Figure 4 shows the Spearman correlations calculated between the different water parameters. The strongest correlation was observed between dissolved oxygen and temperature, with a coefficient of −0.71 (p < 0.001), indicating a significant negative relationship: as water temperature increases, the dissolved oxygen level decreases. Other correlations were weaker, such as those observed between ammonia and temperature (−0.23) and between ammonia and pH (−0.23), although most of these did not reach statistical significance. The scatter plots also show a wide dispersion of the data, reflecting the high variability in the physicochemical parameters of the water during the study period.

3.2. Evaluation of Growth Parameters

Table 2 presents the growth parameters, including the total amount of feed delivered, initial and final biomass, specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion factor (FCR), fish density, and Fulton’s condition factor (K). The high survival rate (100%) and significant increase in biomass (112.59%) were observed in the culture system.
Figure 5 shows the relationship between weight (g) and specific growth rate (SGR, % day−1) of S. lalandi over a 238-day period. The results showed that while individual weight increased progressively over time, with averages ranging from 675 to 1435 g, fluctuations in SGR were more pronounced, with mean values ranging from 0.14 to 0.43% d−1, exhibiting a non-linear trend.
The growth model (Weight(t) = 641.560.00329 × t) described an increase in the average weight over time, showing a consistent positive trend. Additionally, the relationship between time and SGR showed a significant correlation (τ = 0.533, p = 0.005), indicating a statistically significant association between the two parameters.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the weight and length of S. lalandi specimens, along with Fulton’s condition factor (K). The analysis showed a significant positive correlation between weight and length (Spearman r = 0.929, p = 2.2 × 10−16), indicating a strong linear fit to the data. The data points represent variations in the condition factor, with values ranging from 2.4–2.8.

4. Discussion

This study provides empirical evidence of the performance of S. lalandi during adaptation to semi-controlled farming systems, considering both physiological and environmental factors that influence its growth and welfare. These findings are discussed in comparison with previous studies on Seriola spp. and other marine species of aquacultural interest, highlighting the similarities, differences, and potential implications for the design of management strategies aimed at optimizing the production of eggs and larvae through animal welfare in recirculating systems.

4.1. Adaptation of S. lalandi to the Culture Tank

To avoid starvation in newly captured wild fish and facilitate their adaptation to farming conditions, studies have suggested the use of fresh dead prey [22] or live feeds [23] during the initial stages of adaptation. High-energy-density diets are common for carnivorous fish species, which require substantial energy for growth and metabolic activity [24,25]. As a carnivorous species, S. lalandi benefits from an energy-rich diet that supports its rapid growth and active lifestyle. In our study, S. lalandi specimens were fed daily with a ration equivalent to 4% of their biomass using a mixed diet of fresh and dry feed, consistent with previous cultivation experiences for the same species [26]. Approximately three to five weeks after being introduced into the rearing system, the fish began to voluntarily accept a commercial diet formulated for marine broodstock (Skretting, NOVA ME 2000), representing a major advance in their adaptation to farming by reducing their dependence on fresh or live prey, thus optimizing feeding logistics and improving system health management.
The feeding rate used in our study, below 10%, has been previously employed with good results in other pelagic species such as Euthynnus affinis and Cybiosarda elegans [22], and is consistent with the report by Pepe-Victoriano et al. [15] for Sarda chiliensis chiliensis, a study in which moderate food supply still led to efficient adaptation to the rearing system. This was evidenced by the gradual voluntary acceptance of commercial feed and low incidence of mortality associated with stress or physical trauma. These results support the notion that a gradual dietary transition strategy can facilitate the conditioning of pelagic species in captivity, mitigating the negative effects of confinement described in the literature [27]. In this regard, Yazawa et al. [28] illustrated how the absence of a successful progression in feed acceptance can negatively affect captive conditioning: Euthynnus affinis specimens were fed thawed fish at 5–10% of their biomass but lacked a clear transition to formulated diets. As a result, after one year of cultivation, high mortality was recorded, mainly attributed to collisions with tank walls, a common occurrence in highly mobile pelagic species kept in suboptimal conditions.
Although no spawning was recorded during the experimental period, the conditioning of S. lalandi in the low-cost RAS system can be considered successful in physiological and zootechnical terms. Adaptation to confinement, maintenance of proper body condition, acceptance of formulated feed, and low recorded mortality indicated that the individuals reached a healthy and stable status. Although the lack of spawning observed in this study could be related to gonadal ripening and confinement stress, no hormonal induction strategies or photothermal manipulation were used during the experiment. However, these approaches are considered fundamental in future research to improve the reproduction of S. lalandi under controlled conditions. Hormonal induction by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRHa) and photothermal manipulation are proven approaches that could facilitate gonadal ripening and spawning induction in semi-controlled environments, such as RAS systems, and are planned to be evaluated in further studies.
The absence of reproduction in our study may be attributed to the need for a longer period of gonadal maturation. This extended adaptation time may result from slow acclimation to captivity conditions, environmental and hormonal manipulation, and reproductive dysfunctions associated with confinement. This highlights the complexity of captive reproduction and the importance of optimizing conditions to facilitate gonadal maturation and enhance reproductive success [29,30]. Therefore, ensuring appropriate broodstock management and applying effective spawning induction strategies are crucial factors that directly affects the quality of the expected eggs and larvae [31,32,33]. In this regard, experiences like the one developed in this study can be considered a valuable preliminary step, although some factors still need to be optimized to achieve effective reproduction. This initial quality is critical for ensuring the success of farming during the early stages of development [34,35].
Although this study did not include gonadal histological analyses or detailed assessment of sex ratios within the population, the physiological performance, body condition, and behavioral stability observed throughout the experimental period suggest that the broodstock remained in a healthy pre-reproductive state. The absence of gonadal evaluation represents a limitation of this pilot phase, primarily focused on assessing confinement adaptation and feeding acceptance under arid conditions. Future studies will incorporate reproductive and endocrine monitoring to better understand the gonadal development dynamics of S. lalandi in recirculating aquaculture systems.

4.2. Water Quality

Spearman’s correlation analysis between temperature and dissolved oxygen yielded a coefficient of −0.71 (p < 0.001), while the Mann–Kendall test also indicated a significant negative relationship (τ = −0.589). This pattern has also been described in natural marine habitats, where similar negative correlations have been reported [36]. These results are consistent with expectations in aquaculture environments, where increased temperature reduces the amount of oxygen available in the water, which can have important physiological implications for the farmed species. Although the general trend between temperature and dissolved oxygen followed a negative correlation, as expected in aquaculture environments, Figure 3 indicates that during the initial months (April–July) temperature remained relatively stable while dissolved oxygen increased slightly. This behavior can be attributed to the lower overall oxygen demand during the early phase of the culture, when fish biomass and feeding rates were still limited and the biofilter community was in its early colonization stage. The subsequent decline in dissolved oxygen from August onward likely reflects the combined effect of increased fish biomass, higher feed input, and intensified microbial activity within the RAS biofilters, which together elevated oxygen consumption. Therefore, the observed variations are not solely explained by thermal effects on oxygen solubility, but rather by the progressive biological loading of the system and the metabolic demand of both fish and microbial communities [37]. This behavior is well documented, as oxygen solubility decreases at higher temperatures [15,38,39,40], directly affecting the respiratory processes of fish [41]. Additionally, elevated temperatures have been reported to increase the metabolic demand of aquatic organisms, thereby intensifying the negative effects of reduced oxygen availability [42,43,44].
S. lalandi is particularly sensitive to variations in temperature and oxygen, which can affect its behavior, growth, and physiological condition [43,45]. However, despite these challenging environmental conditions, the specimens cultured in this study exhibited low mortality, good feed acceptance, and adequate body condition, suggesting that the implemented low-cost RAS system was effective in maintaining physiological stability of the fish during the culture period.
The inverse relationship between temperature and dissolved oxygen also has broader environmental implications. The sustained increase in ocean temperatures associated with climate change could further reduce the availability of oxygen in marine water bodies [46,47], affecting the distribution, abundance, and physiological performance of sensitive species, such as S. lalandi. These findings are particularly relevant to marine aquaculture, as they reinforce the need to implement farming systems that include environmental control mechanisms and management strategies to mitigate the effects of such variations on fish health and growth.
In contrast, the weak correlations between ammonia, nitrates, and pH may reflect more complex interactions dependent on factors not measured in this study, such as nutrient load or biological activity within the aquatic system. Specifically, the negative correlation between ammonia and temperature could be related to the influence of temperature on microbial metabolism and organic matter decomposition, witch directly affects the ammonia concentration in the water [48,49,50].
The weak relationship between pH and parameters such as temperature and nitrates suggests that it may not be significantly affected by these variables, at least under the specific conditions of the culture system analyzed. However, pH remains a critical factor in aquatic biochemistry because it influences nutrient availability [51,52] and the toxicity of certain compounds, such as heavy metals and products derived from organic matter decomposition [53].
Consequently, the strong relationship between dissolved oxygen and temperature should be a key consideration in managing S. lalandi farming, while the weaker relationships between other parameters suggest the need for more comprehensive studies to explore how different physicochemical components influence the performance of this species in closed culture systems.

4.3. Growth Parameters

The results obtained showed that the growth of S. lalandi followed a pattern of increasing weight over time, with a specific growth rate (SGR) that, although variable, maintained a generally upward trend. This fluctuation may be related to variations in environmental conditions, such as food availability or water temperature—factors known to influence fish physiology [54,55,56]. The positive and significant relationship between time and weight, along with SGR, suggests that the environmental conditions were adequate for the growth of this species during the observation period.
Although feed supply remained constant in both amount and frequency within the RAS, the fluctuations observed in the specific growth rate (SGR) can be explained by the interaction of environmental and biological variables inherent to closed systems. In particular, small variations in water temperature (on the order of 1–2 °C), dissolved oxygen, or microbial dynamics in the biofilter can alter the metabolic efficiency and feed conversion of the fish [57,58]. Likewise, social factors such as hierarchy [59], intraspecific competition [60], and stocking density [61] influence access to feed and individual energy expenditure. Since SGR reflects an integrated measure of growth over extended periods, even slight changes in environmental conditions can accumulate and manifest as fluctuations in the average growth rate. Therefore, the variations detected in SGR do not necessarily imply changes in feeding but rather reflect the complex interaction between the physical environment, physiology, and social behavior of S. lalandi under confinement conditions.
The non-linear growth pattern observed may reflect an initial adaptation phase, followed by a more stable growth phase as individuals reached larger sizes. Previous research has shown that marine species exhibit variations in growth rates depending on internal and external factors [62], which supports our results. Similarly, the progressive increase in weight was consistent with typical growth models in fast-growing aquatic species, as seen in other Seriola species [45,63]. However, the variability recorded in SGR over time highlights the need to assess multiple factors that may influence fish growth and performance in aquaculture systems.
The results showed a strong positive correlation between the weight and length of the organisms, a morphometric pattern commonly found in fish and well documented in the literature. In particular, a study by Abdaoui et al. [64] reported a similar relationship in Seriola dumerili, reinforcing the interpretation that these two morphometric parameters are closely related, with the increase in one associated with the increase in the other.
Fulton’s condition factor (K) showed some variability in relation to weight and length, which is consistent with previous research on fish body condition. K is used as an indicator of the physiological state and energy reserves of fish [65,66]. The range of K values observed in this study, between 2.4 and 2.8, suggests a good physical condition of the sampled individuals, which is relevant when interpreting growth and survival in aquaculture studies. The maintenance of 100% survival also underlines the efficiency of the system in managing the growing conditions, which is consistent with previous studies that highlighted low mortality in well-managed RAS systems [15].
Finally, monitoring the condition factor and morphometric variables is especially important in aquaculture management, as optimal body condition is directly linked to greater growth efficiency and improved reproductive outcomes [67,68]. Therefore, systematic monitoring of these parameters is essential to ensure the health and performance of S. lalandi populations in farming systems.
Although this study has shown that the use of a low-cost recirculating system (RAS) is feasible from a technical and productive standpoint, comparing the operating costs and scalability of this system with conventional RAS and open-sea aquaculture is a key aspect to consider. Conventional RAS require a higher initial investment and higher operating costs owing to the need for more complex equipment, greater environmental control, and a more expensive filtration system. However, the low-cost SRA used in this study has advantages in terms of lower initial investment costs due to its construction with more accessible materials and reduced long-term operating costs, especially in areas with water constraints. Furthermore, its scalability in arid regions, where water resources are limited, makes this system an attractive option for diversifying aquaculture in northern Chile compared to traditional marine systems that depend on more expensive water sources and more intensive management.

4.4. Difference Between LOW-Cost and High-Cost RAS

The differences between a low-cost Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) and a high-cost one can have significant implications for both the productive efficiency and sustainability of S. lalandi farming.
High-cost systems generally incorporate advanced technologies such as automated monitoring, thermal and photoperiod control, ozonation, degassing, and ultraviolet filtration, allowing for continuous and precise maintenance of water quality parameters within optimal ranges [69]. These conditions reduce physiological stress, improve growth and gonadal maturation, and favor reproductive success. However, such systems require substantial initial investment and high operational costs, which limit their adoption in regions with economic constraints or limited technological infrastructure [70].
In contrast, the low-cost RAS used in this study relies on a simplified design with conventional mechanical and biological components (sand filters, sedimentation tanks, biofilters, and constant aeration), prioritizing hydraulic efficiency and water reuse. Although this type of system has a lower capacity for fine environmental control, such as temperature, photoperiod, and dissolved oxygen, it is viable in arid environments where water availability and financial resources are limited, due to its low energy demand and ease of maintenance [71].
From a functional perspective, high-cost RAS maximize productivity per unit volume [72], whereas low-cost systems optimize technological accessibility and local replicability, promoting inclusion in regions traditionally excluded from aquaculture development [71]. Biologically, both systems can sustain adequate growth and survival rates, provided that density, feeding, and water quality are carefully managed. However, reproductive potential and long-term physiological stability tend to be higher in systems offering more precise environmental control.
While high-cost RAS constitute an ideal tool for industrial-scale operations and specialized research centers, low-cost RAS represent a practical and sustainable alternative for the expansion of small-scale aquaculture in arid zones such as northern Chile, contributing to territorial development and productive diversification under the principles of circular economy and efficient water use.

4.5. Perspectives and Development of Marine Fish Conditioning

The successful conditioning of wild marine fish represents one of the main challenges for the advancement of aquaculture of native and pelagic species of high commercial value [73]. The results obtained in this study with S. lalandi demonstrate that a gradual dietary transition strategy, along with careful management of the physical environment, water quality, and stocking density, can significantly enhance adaptation to confinement, minimize stress, and reduce mortality during the initial stages of farming. This approach, based on the progressive acceptance of dry feed and the stability of zootechnical parameters, such as growth and body condition, sets a precedent for designing more efficient conditioning protocols tailored to the physiological needs of active marine species.
From a broader perspective, the experience with S. lalandi may serve as a useful reference for the development of domestication programs for other pelagic species, many of which face similar limitations in terms of captive response, sensitivity to the physical environment, and specific nutritional requirements [74]. In this regard, the implementation of recirculating systems with environmental control [75], use of specialized, highly palatable diets [76], and application of strict biosecurity measures during early life stages [77,78] emerge as key tools for optimizing the conditioning process under semicontrolled or intensive conditions.
Likewise, the integration of real-time monitoring technologies for critical variables, such as dissolved oxygen, temperature, and ammonia, would allow for dynamic adjustments to system conditions based on the behavior and physiological responses of fish. In this line, future developments in applied biotechnology, including stress biomarkers, metabolic sensors, and artificial intelligence tools for feeding management, could significantly contribute to the design of more efficient and sustainable rearing environments [79].
Finally, the successful conditioning of marine species not only represents an opportunity to diversify national aquaculture but is also an essential step toward reducing pressure on wild populations and supporting the long-term sustainable production of fishery resources [80]. In this context, advancing standardized, reproducible, and scalable protocols for marine fish conditioning is a priority for strengthening technological development in the aquaculture sector.

5. Conclusions

  • S. lalandi demonstrated successful physiological adaptation to confinement in a low-cost RAS system under arid conditions, reflected in low mortality, progressive acceptance of formulated feed, and sustained growth—supported by positive indicators such as specific growth rate (SGR), Fulton’s condition factor, and the weight–length relationship.
  • Water quality remained within suitable parameters throughout the experimental period, although a strong negative correlation between temperature and dissolved oxygen was evident. This reinforces the importance of monitoring these factors in warm environments to optimize the welfare and zootechnical performance of pelagic fishes.
  • This experience validates the use of low-cost recirculating systems as a technically and productively viable alternative for conditioning marine species in arid regions, contributing to the diversification of national aquaculture. Although the results of this study are promising and provide a solid basis for future experiments, caution is advised when applying these findings on a large scale, as the study is still in its preliminary stages.
  • This study demonstrates that S. lalandi can successfully adapt to a low-cost RAS system in arid conditions. However, future research should focus on hormonal induction and photothermal manipulation strategies to induce spawning, as well as long-term broodstock management to optimize reproduction and ensure the sustainability of farming in arid regions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, experimental design and culture management, R.P.-V., P.P.-V., E.B.-S. and J.I.H.; data analyses and first draft, R.P.-V., P.P.-V. and J.I.H.; data curation, R.P.-V., P.P.-V. and J.I.H.; interpretation of results R.P.-V., P.P.-V. and J.I.H.; manuscript review and editing, R.P.-V., P.P.-V., E.B.-S., J.I.H., H.A.-A., F.M.-A., J.Z.R.-H. and L.A.E.-R.; funding acquisition and projects administration, R.P.-V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the project: “FIC P80 project code BIP 30110573-0, titled Innovation in the Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in the Region of Arica and Parinacota, Recirculation System (SAR) for the Maintenance and Conditioning of Marine Fishes” (Universidad de Tarapacá). The APC was funded by the Universidad Arturo Prat.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was approved by the Ethics and Biosafety Committee of AQUAINNOVA (code No. 02/2016, date: 17 March 2016).

Data Availability Statement

All data is provided within the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

This study was conducted in collaboration with the Red Euro-Latina de Simbiosis para la Acuicultura Sostenible (SEASOS; Euro-Latin Network of Symbiosis for Sustainable Aquaculture) and the Red Iberoamericana de Agroacuicultura (SIBIOLAT; Ibero-American Network of Agro-Aquaculture).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Geographical location of La Capilla Beach in the Arica and Parinacota Region, Chile. An adult specimen of Seriola lalandi is shown.
Figure 1. Geographical location of La Capilla Beach in the Arica and Parinacota Region, Chile. An adult specimen of Seriola lalandi is shown.
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Figure 2. Diagram of the broodstock conditioning system for Seriola lalandi. (1) Broodstock conditioning tank (75 m3), (2) water holding tank (5 m3), (3) 1.5 HP pump, (4) disc filter, (5) sand filter, (6) biofilter tank (5 m3), and (7) 1.5 hp pump.
Figure 2. Diagram of the broodstock conditioning system for Seriola lalandi. (1) Broodstock conditioning tank (75 m3), (2) water holding tank (5 m3), (3) 1.5 HP pump, (4) disc filter, (5) sand filter, (6) biofilter tank (5 m3), and (7) 1.5 hp pump.
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Figure 3. Monthly average variations in temperature and dissolved oxygen during the study.
Figure 3. Monthly average variations in temperature and dissolved oxygen during the study.
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Figure 4. Scatter plots showing the distributions and Spearman’s correlations between water parameters in Seriola lalandi culture. Red dots represent individual data points, while the red lines indicate regression lines that illustrate the relationships between parameters. The grey shaded area corresponds to the confidence intervals of the data points. Significance thresholds: p < 0.001 (***).
Figure 4. Scatter plots showing the distributions and Spearman’s correlations between water parameters in Seriola lalandi culture. Red dots represent individual data points, while the red lines indicate regression lines that illustrate the relationships between parameters. The grey shaded area corresponds to the confidence intervals of the data points. Significance thresholds: p < 0.001 (***).
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Figure 5. Growth progression of Seriola lalandi over 8 months, showing trends in weight (g) and specific growth rate (SGR, % d−1) during the conditioning phase.
Figure 5. Growth progression of Seriola lalandi over 8 months, showing trends in weight (g) and specific growth rate (SGR, % d−1) during the conditioning phase.
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Figure 6. Fulton’s condition factor (k) in relation to the weight and length of Seriola lalandi.
Figure 6. Fulton’s condition factor (k) in relation to the weight and length of Seriola lalandi.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of the foods used during the conditioning of Seriola lalandi.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the foods used during the conditioning of Seriola lalandi.
Parameter/NutrientFresh Food (Odontesthes regia) (MINSA, 2017 [19])Commercial Dry Food (Skretting, NOVA ME 2000)
Type of foodWhole fresh fishPellet formulated for marine breeders
Pellet size (mm)-1.5–9.0
Crude protein (%)19.452.0
Lipids (%)2.422.0
Crude fiber (%)-1.2
Crude ash (%)-12.0
Moisture (%)76.510.0
Gross energy (MJ/kg)0.04122.77
Feeding frequency (times/day)12
Table 2. Growth and feed parameters of Seriola lalandi during broodstock conditioning.
Table 2. Growth and feed parameters of Seriola lalandi during broodstock conditioning.
ParametersValue
Feed delivered (kg)922.78
Initial biomass (kg)31.05
Final biomass (kg)66.01
Weight input (gr)760
Initial density (kg/m3)0.52
Final density (kg/m3)1.10
Initial number of fish46
Final No. of fish46
FCA1.21
SGR0.32
% WG112.59
% Survival100
Fulton’s condition1.25
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MDPI and ACS Style

Pepe-Victoriano, R.; Pepe-Vargas, P.; Borquez-Segovia, E.; Huanacuni, J.I.; Aravena-Ambrosetti, H.; Méndez-Abarca, F.; Resurrección-Huertas, J.Z.; Espinoza-Ramos, L.A. Strategies for Broodstock Farming in Arid Environments: Rearing Juvenile Seriola lalandi in a Low-Cost RAS. Fishes 2025, 10, 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10110579

AMA Style

Pepe-Victoriano R, Pepe-Vargas P, Borquez-Segovia E, Huanacuni JI, Aravena-Ambrosetti H, Méndez-Abarca F, Resurrección-Huertas JZ, Espinoza-Ramos LA. Strategies for Broodstock Farming in Arid Environments: Rearing Juvenile Seriola lalandi in a Low-Cost RAS. Fishes. 2025; 10(11):579. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10110579

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pepe-Victoriano, Renzo, Piera Pepe-Vargas, Elizabeth Borquez-Segovia, Jordan I. Huanacuni, Héctor Aravena-Ambrosetti, Felipe Méndez-Abarca, Juan Zenón Resurrección-Huertas, and Luis Antonio Espinoza-Ramos. 2025. "Strategies for Broodstock Farming in Arid Environments: Rearing Juvenile Seriola lalandi in a Low-Cost RAS" Fishes 10, no. 11: 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10110579

APA Style

Pepe-Victoriano, R., Pepe-Vargas, P., Borquez-Segovia, E., Huanacuni, J. I., Aravena-Ambrosetti, H., Méndez-Abarca, F., Resurrección-Huertas, J. Z., & Espinoza-Ramos, L. A. (2025). Strategies for Broodstock Farming in Arid Environments: Rearing Juvenile Seriola lalandi in a Low-Cost RAS. Fishes, 10(11), 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10110579

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