Managing Cd Containing Waste—Caught by the Past, the Circular Economy Needs New Answers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Technical requirements can vary from one application to another and this also holds true for toxicity thresholds, as has been intensively discussed for the migration of solvents from cardboard made from printed paper to food (cf. [18] and literature cited there).
- Technical standards for materials may change during the lifetime of a product. For secondary resources originating from a recycling process only current requirements are valid. This may turn out to be a crucial problem for material recovery in cases where certain contaminants are involved: Some important chemicals previously used in products have either been restricted to certain applications (e.g., compounds containing mercury, cadmium, lead) or banned completely (e.g., asbestos, PCBs, certain brominated diphenylethers). This is partially due to international conventions (e.g., POPs are regulated by the Stockholm Convention, mercury is regulated by the Minamata Convention) or is a result of regulations at European level based on specific directives (e.g., RoHS Directive [19]) or general chemicals regulations (e.g., restricted chemicals under the REACH regulation [20]).
- As the use of chemicals varies from region to region, widely depending on different regulations, secondary materials including certain additives from the first use of the material in question (plastics, fibres from textiles, cardboard …) may be allowed in some countries but not everywhere. Global trade and transport of secondary materials may therefore lead to a proliferation of contaminants in parts of the world where these contaminants have already been banned [21,22].
2. Scope and Structure of the Study
- Some hazardous compounds are specifically regulated in products. To what extent separate collection and recycling and / or safe disposal of these products can be ensured?
- Will those hazardous compounds already regulated today appear in waste streams other than those intended?
- the successful implementation and enforcement of regulations for the reduction of emissions from point sources in Europe
- the increasing relevance of diffuse sources in Europe in parallel to the restriction of emissions from point sources
- the growing importance of the waste sector, that means opportunities for recycling Cd, but
- risks from new diffuse sources due to cross-contamination from recycling operations or leaching from landfills
- Cd in NiCd batteries and accumulators
- Cd (used as an organic salt) in window frames made from PVC
3. Cadmium (Cd)
3.1. Important Regulations
- Severe restriction of Cd and its compounds in products intended to be diffused or used in close contact with the environment
- Growing restrictions for products that remain on the market, in the case of batteries combined with waste management aimed at closing the loop through take-back and recycling targets
- Threshold limits for emissions from point sources
- Quality standards for air, water and agricultural soil
- Limits for food and drinking water contamination
3.1.1. Use of Cd and Cd-Bearing Products
- Cd compounds must not be used in polymers with a limit of 0.01% w/w; an exception is valid for mixtures and articles containing recovered PVC to facilitate the recycling of used PVC profiles from the building sector (see Section 3.3).
- Cd pigments must not be used in paints, with the general exception of mixtures where Cd is used for safety reasons and with the exception of zinc-based products (>10% w/w Zn).
- Cd must no longer be used for plating (this does not apply to articles put on market before 10 December 2011), with the exception of articles used in the aeronautical, aerospace, mining, offshore and nuclear sectors as far as high safety standards are required. The ban does not apply to safety devices in road and agricultural vehicles, railway rolling stock, and vessels as well as to electrical contacts if needed to ensure the reliability of the apparatus in question.
- Cd in brazing fillers must not exceed 0.01% w/w, with the exception of aerospace, military and safety applications.
- Cd is prohibited in jewellery put on market after 10 December 2011 (0.01% w/w threshold limit).
3.1.2. Waste and Waste Classification Regulations
3.1.3. Environmental Standards
3.2. Recycling of NiCd Batteries and Accumulators
- Electrical and electronic devices: 7.0 years
- Construction (e.g., emergency systems): 9.0 years
- Transportation (e.g., locomotives): 9.8 years
3.2.1. Production and Marketing
3.2.2. Collection
3.2.3. Recycling
3.2.4. Batteries in WEEE
- In integrated copper and other non-ferric metal mills, Cd is not separated for recovery. Due to its fugacity, Cd and its compounds form part of the flue dust (No 10 06 03*, European Waste Catalogue) (One of the major European non-ferric metal mills informed us on request that this waste is disposed of in a former salt mine suitable for hazardous waste.) or are emitted via the flue gas. In 2015 in Germany, 60% (=903 kg) of the Cd emissions reported in the German e-PRTR (1516 kg) were released by the metal industry (“Production of pig iron or steel (primary or secondary melting) including continuous casting >2.5 Mg h−1”), with three emitters (ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, Schwelgern plant: 257 kg, Salzgitter Flachstahl GmbH, Salzgitter plant: 135 kg, ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, Beeckerwerth plant: 121 kg) all above 100 kg year−1 [83].
- As a trace metal in ferrous metal recycling, Cd is separated into electric arc furnace dust (together with Zn), which should be treated in order to remove the Cd. Zn can then be recovered in an imperial smelting furnace [84].
3.2.5. Fate of Batteries Not Collected Separately
3.3. Recycling of Cd Compounds in PVC Profiles
3.3.1. Production and Use
- profiles and rigid sheets for building applications
- doors, windows, fences, shutters, walls, blinds, roof gutters, cable ducts
- pipes for non-drinking water, if the secondary PVC is only used in the middle layer of the pipe surrounded by layers made of virgin PVC in compliance with the 100 mg kg−1 Cd limit
3.3.2. Recycling of PVC Profiles
3.3.3. Fate of PVC Profiles Not Collected Separately
4. Discussion
- The unknown number of portable batteries used or stored in households impedes a reliable calculation of the amount stored in the technosphere.
- The number of batteries integrated in electric appliances, which are not separated from WEEE, is unknown.
- There is no information concerning the number of industrial batteries imported into the EU and their recycling in Europe or elsewhere.
4.1. Economic Perspective
4.2. Entropy Perspective
4.3. Application and Consumption
- identification of the type of battery, also in the case of accumulators integrated in electrical appliances
- take-back stations that are easily accessible for citizens
- public awareness and incentives for the return of batteries
4.4. Time Perspective
5. Conclusions
5.1. Management of Cd-Bearing Products and Waste
5.2. Circular Economy Approaches
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Batteries for Industrial Use | Portable Batteries |
---|---|
Emergency or back-up power supply (hospitals, airports, offices) | Emergency and alarm systems, including emergency lighting |
Use in trains or aircraft | Cordless power tools (expired) |
Use on offshore oil rigs or in lighthouses | Medical equipment |
Hand-held payment terminals, bar code readers | |
Professional video equipment | |
Miners’ and diving lamps attached to helmets | |
Electrical vehicles (cars, wheelchairs, bicycles …) | |
Back-up for electric doors to prevent blocking | |
Use in connection with renewable energy applications |
Year | NiCd Battery Sales in Germany (Mg) | NiCd Batteries Collected in Germany (Mg) | Collection Rate |
---|---|---|---|
2004 | 3961 | 1182 | |
2005 | 3132 | 1078 | |
2006 | 4185 | 1022 | 27% |
2007 | 2687 | 1089 | 33% |
2008 | 2476 | 1230 | 39% |
2009 | 803 | 1141 | 57% |
2010 | 1191 | 1034 | 69% |
2011 | 1336 | 1013 | 91% |
2012 | 1009 | 1183 | 100% |
2013 | 775 | 1349 | 130% |
2014 | 568 | 1416 | 181% |
2015 | 501 | 1383 | 225% |
2016 | 415 | 1442 | 292% |
Collection of Used Windows (Pure PVC) | 42,740 Mg | 100% |
---|---|---|
Production of windows | 24,810 Mg | 58% |
Demolition | 8890 Mg | 21% |
Disposal companies | 6760 Mg | 16% |
Residential construction | 2280 Mg | 5% |
Whereabouts of used windows (pure PVC) | 42,740 Mg | 100% |
Re-use | 2850 Mg | 7% |
Recycling (pure PVC) | 39,890 Mg | 93% |
Recycling of used windows (pure PVC) | 39,890 Mg | 93% |
Material recycling by Rewindo | 22,330 Mg | 52% |
Material recycling by other companies | 3264 Mg | 8% |
Energetic recovery by other companies | 14,296 Mg | 33% |
For comparison: Production waste (pure PVC) | 75,030 Mg |
Year | Cadmium | Nickel | Copper | Zinc |
---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 3.0 | 24.2 | 89.0 | 3.5 |
2007 | 7.6 | 37.2 | 82.0 | 3.4 |
2008 | 5.9 | 21.1 | 210.0 | 2.0 |
2009 | 2.9 | 14.6 | 158.0 | 1.7 |
2010 | 3.9 | 21.8 | 221.0 | 2.3 |
2011 | 2.8 | 22.9 | 349.0 | 2.3 |
2012 | 2.0 | 17.5 | 150.0 | 2.1 |
2013 | 1.9 | 15.0 | 112.0 | 2.1 |
2014 | 1.9 | 16.9 | 119.0 | 2.4 |
2015 | 1.5 | 11.8 | 77.0 | No data |
7 May 2017 | 1.9 | 10.7 | 58.8 | 3.1 |
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Friege, H.; Zeschmar-Lahl, B.; Borgmann, A. Managing Cd Containing Waste—Caught by the Past, the Circular Economy Needs New Answers. Recycling 2018, 3, 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020018
Friege H, Zeschmar-Lahl B, Borgmann A. Managing Cd Containing Waste—Caught by the Past, the Circular Economy Needs New Answers. Recycling. 2018; 3(2):18. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020018
Chicago/Turabian StyleFriege, Henning, Barbara Zeschmar-Lahl, and Andreas Borgmann. 2018. "Managing Cd Containing Waste—Caught by the Past, the Circular Economy Needs New Answers" Recycling 3, no. 2: 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020018