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1 October 2021

Documentation of Commonly Used Ethnoveterinary Medicines from Wild Plants of the High Mountains in Shimla District, Himachal Pradesh, India

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School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan 173229, India
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Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division, ICAR—Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai 400019, India
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School of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan 173229, India
4
Department of Zoology Saradar Vallabhbhai Patel, Cluster University, Mandi 175001, India
Horticulturae2021, 7(10), 351;https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7100351
This article belongs to the Collection Prospects of Using Wild Plant Species in Horticulture
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Abstract

The aim of current study is to provide a significant traditional knowledge on wild medicines used for ethnoveterinary purposes in the rural area of Maraog region in district Shimla. The medicinal plants have played a significant role in the treatment of human as well as animal’s diseases. The rural people of the Maraog region were interviewed through a questionnaire and extensive field surveys were conducted from June 2020 to July 2021. The discussion, observations and interviews were conducted in study site and included 96 informants. The information gathered from the residents is presented in a table format and includes scientific and local names, different parts used, diseases treated and mode administration. The most commonly used taxa are calculated with used value. The study revealed 100 plants in which trees (7), shrubs (26), herbs (56), ferns (5), grasses (3) and climbers (3) were identified. The most commonly documented livestock diseases were found to be hoof infections, eyes infections, poisoning and skin infections. In the current study, the Rosaceae family was reported as being the highest number (11), followed by Asteraceae (10) and then Lamiaceae (6). It was found that leaves, roots, flowers and fruits are the commonly used parts for ethnoveterinary medications. The phytochemicals present in the plant, such as alkaloids, sterols, glycosides, flavonoids, lignin, coumarins and terpenoids, etc., may be responsible for their medicinal properties. In this documentation, it was observed that the younger generation does not have good knowledge of medicinal plants as compared to the older ones. Therefore, it is necessary to preserve the traditional knowledge of these medicinal plants before their permanent loss. The documentation and conservation of medicinal plants can be a good start for novel phytopharmacological research in the veterinary field.

1. Introduction

Ethnoveterinary medicine is a branch of science that explores the values, methods, skills, procedures and practices used for animal health care [1,2,3,4]. In rural areas of the northwestern Himalaya, plants are important for ethnic communities’ survival. As the World Health Organization (WHO) reports, approximately 80% of the world’s population is directly dependent on plant resources for their health, especially those living in rural regions [5,6]. India is considered a rich source of biodiversity, with two mega biodiversity hotspots, the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas [7]. The state of Himachal Pradesh has about 3256 plant species [8]. There are 3120 species of angiosperms, 124 species of pteridophytes and 12 species of gymnosperms in Himachal Pradesh. The high and low hills are covered with coniferous forests, with oak trees growing in the hollows. Firs and spruce dominate the higher elevations, while pines cover the lower elevations. The Himachal Pradesh is rich source of herbal medicinal plants and people of some areas are completely dependent on these plants for their well-being. In different reports, it was documented that aromatic and medicinal plants are used for various therapeutic purposes [9,10,11]. It was reported that different plants species have been used in India for medicinal purposes and human nourishment since Vedic times [12]. Medicinal plants possess different types of phytochemicals, such as alkaloids, flavonoid and saponin. [13,14,15]. The different natural resources from forests such as wild plants are used to fulfil the daily human beings’ requirements, such as fuel, fodder and medicines [16,17]. Some wild plants yielding fruits are major source of nutrients and economy for many communities throughout the world [18,19]. Since ancient times, plants have been used by the majority of tribal communities. Some causes, such as rising drug prices and veterinary practices, have suddenly increased interest in the field of ethnoveterinary research [20]. People acquire ethnoveterinary information through several years of experience and only orally pass it on from generation to generation (oral tradition). With rapid cultural changes and modernization, this traditional information is being loss [21]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to for scientific documentation of traditional information from rural areas of India [22]. Different types of ethnoveterinary research on the use of plants in therapeutic studies have been conducted around the world [23]. Ethnoveterinary traditional knowledge is applied for the health care system of domestic animals [24,25]. In India, since the Vedic era, plants have been used in veterinary treatment [26,27,28]. The current study documented a large number of wild plants with medicinal properties and therapeutic applications which are still unknown from Maraog region in Shimla district. In this context, it is important to conduct the extensive field surveys in unexplored regions that document the ethnoveterinary knowledge, because rapid urbanization and the greater use of synthetic drugs or medicines and culture variations may contribute to the loss of traditional knowledge from society. In addition, it can also provide important information for the selection of natural alternatives for treating livestock diseases and finding new drugs. Therefore, an attempt has been performed to document some useful indigenous knowledge of ethnoveterinary uses of plants from the rural region of Maraog in district Shimla of Himachal Pradesh, India. It was observed that due to modernization in the society, new generation of the study area is not interested in traditional knowledge; hence, the compilation of these ethnoveterinary plants is need of time. The usefulness of ethnopharmacology for drug development will be severely limited due to a lack of regional knowledge base concerning medicinal plants that can be exploited in veterinary ethnopharmacology. This study was conducted in the Shimla district of Maraog region in order to preserve the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. The primary aim of this research was to collect and document the local traditional knowledge of ethnoveterinary plants used by native people of study site.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study Area

The survey was carried out in Maraog region in tehsil Chopal of Shimla district. Maraog region is a rural area in Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh with a diverse ecological, archaeological, religious, mythological and spiritual community Figure 1. Chopal forest division is divided into 7 forest ranges and has 73 forest beats and 22 forest blocks [29]. Agriculture and farming are the primary occupations of the residents of the district. Apple, maize, green vegetables and potato are the chief cultivation crops grown in the study region. The animals such as sheep, goats, cows and buffalos are popular at the study site and provide meat, milk and milk products for rural people in Shimla district.
Figure 1. Scale map of study site.

2.2. Sampling Informants

During a survey, a total of 96 informants (57 male and 39 female) were selected for interview. The age and educational background of informants were documented during interview. The informants were divided into 5 groups on the basis of their age (Table 1). In this study, it is discovered that aged people have immense traditional knowledge of ethnoveterinary plants as compared to younger generation.
Table 1. Demography and literacy among informants.

2.3. Ethnoveterinary Data Collection and Ethical Considerations

The ethnoveterinary data were collected from Maraog region in district Shimla, Himachal Pradesh India. A total of 96 male and female informants were selected by snowball methods for interviews. The ethnoveterinary data were collected through pretested questionnaire, observation, interviews and participatory observations [30,31]. The extensive field visits were used to collect ethnoveterinary data from unexplored rural area of Maraog in tehsil Chopal of Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh, India. For ethnoveterinary survey questionnaire was divided into 3 sections: demographic data, ethnoveterinary plant uses and informant’s declaration. The ethnoveterinary plants species collected from Maraog region in between 2020 to 2021 and they were identified from Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun Uttarakhand, India. The identified plant specimens with voucher numbers were submitted to the herbarium of Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India.

Questionnaire for Conducting the Ethnoveterinary Study

The authors followed a specific questionnaire for conducting this study, as given in Supplementary Information S1.

2.4. Data Analysis

Ethnoveterinary data were collected by snowball method and selected 96 informants (male and female) from Maraog region in tehsil Chopal. The ethnoveterinary data were analyzed through used value.

Use Value

The use value is an ethnobotanical key that has been used to calculate the relative value of useful plant species [32,33].
UV = Σ Ui /n
where Ui is the number of usage reports cited by each informer for a given plants and n is total number of informants. The use value is important to find which plants are most useful to specific inhabitants, estimating possible medicinal plant uses and determining community awareness [34,35]. It has been mentioned that use value places more significance to plants which have various uses, even if these species are not well identified [36]. A high use value indicates that the plant is important, while a low or zero use value indicates that the plant is rarely used or recorded. There is no indication in the use value whether the plant is used for one or more purposes [37].

3. Results

3.1. Ethnoveterinary Plants Reported by the Informants

In study site a total of 96 informants reported 100 plant species used for ethnoveterinary purposes. In this study, it was found that Rosaceae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were the highest reported families by rural people of Maraog. The Rosaceae family had 11 plant species, followed by Asteraceae family with 10 plants and the Lamiaceae family with 6 plants; the Apiaceae, Brassicaceae and Solanaceae families each contributed 3 plant species, while the Fabaceae and Polygonaceae families each contributed 4 plant species; the Amaranthaceae, Berberidaceae, Oxalidaceae, Pinaceae, Poaceae, Primulaceae, Pteridaceae, Ranunculaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Utricaceae contributed 2 plant species (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Representation of the families and number of plants studied at study site.
Some ethnomedicinal plants in the study area are well known for ethnoveterinary purpose was found as Chenopodium album, Cannabis sativa, Cynodon dactylon, Bromus hordeaceus, Cedrus deodara, Ajuga parviflora, Foeniculum vulgare, Sonchus oleraceus and Urtica dioica. The documented plants include 56 herbs, 26 shrubs, 7 trees, 5 ferns, 3 climbers and 3 grasses (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Growth forms of plant species at study site.
As shown in Figure 4, the rhizome, tubers and buds were the least frequently documented plant parts used in ethnoveterinary purpose.
Figure 4. Representation of the number of citations of plant parts used.

3.2. Use Value of Medicinal Plants

It was found that few plant species have greater used value Cannabis sativa (0.79), Cynodon dactylon (0.75), Datura stramonium (0.71), Rhododendron arboreum (0.71), Chenopodium album (0.69), Hedera nepalensis (0.68), Mentha viridis (0.65) and Viola canescens (0.63).
Different plant parts roots, leaves, stem, rhizoids and tubers, etc., are used to treat a variety of livestock diseases. A total of 100 plants were documented for ethnoveterinary preparations in rural region of Maraog. In discussion with aged people, they reported skin infections, mouth blisters, diarrhea, gastrointestinal disorders, cuts, udder infections and eye disorders were the most commonly found symptoms in livestock. The most popular methods of preparation include the use of leaf paste, infusion and decoction, with other methods such as wood ash being recorded less frequently. According to the data collected from the informants, it was found that the mode of administration can be oral or topical and certain plants can be used both orally and topically to treat livestock diseases. The majority of preparations use a single plant, with just a few combining multiple plant species.
Table 2 describes all plants reported with their botanical name, family, habit, parts used and ailment treated.
Table 2. Ethnomedicinal plants used in study area.

4. Discussion

4.1. Ethnoveterinary Prospective of Wild Plants

Ethnopharmacological studies are an important step in the development of natural-source drugs. Today, around 65% of Indian people are dependent on the medicinal plants [38]. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plant use, wild crafting and preservation promotes research for novel drugs, as well as the time effectiveness [39,40,41,42]. Medicinal plants have the capability to treat both infectious and noninfectious diseases and not only used to treat human diseases, but are also frequently utilized to treat animal ailments [43,44,45,46]. The primary goal of the ethnoveterinary study is to compile a list of plant species that have ethnoveterinary applications in the unexplored region of tehsil Chopal in district Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. In earlier studies, all over the world, it was documented that those medicinal plants show significant role in the human being healthcare system, as well as that of animals. They are easily available from nature, without any cost [47,48,49]. The documentation of ethnobotanical studies from rural and unexplored areas of all over the world is highly significant for future researchers [49,50,51]. In ethnoveterinary practices, plants are used for the treatment of diseases due to reduced number of side effects [52,53]. Ethnoveterinary medicines are easily available from surroundings without much effort [2,22]. In this study, it was found that Rosaceae family is the most frequently mentioned species from Maraog region in Shimla district. The Rosaceae plants have traditionally used to treat skin diseases, intestinal disorders, hoof infections and eye infections. In relation to shrubs and trees, herbaceous plants were used most frequently in the Maraog region. In various studies, all over the world, it was reported that different medicinal plants possess different types of phytochemicals. Phytochemical components present in different plant species are the most significant method for identifying the active medicinal potential of plants [54,55,56,57]. The concentration of phytochemicals in plant species varies according to geographical variations [58,59,60]. In ethnobotanical studies, it was reported that aged people have great traditional knowledge as compared to younger generation due to western culture followed by new generation [21,61]. The study, conducted in different regions of India, proved that new generation is not interested in traditional knowledge due to socioeconomic and cultural changes in the society [62]. The use value is a quantitative method that determines the relative importance of plant species for societies [63]. The most commonly used species had a high use value, showing that they are significant. The species with high use values found in this study had previously been scientifically well-known for their phytochemical composition and medicinal value. Saponins, tannins, flavonoids and phenolic compounds are among the chemical compounds contained in Chenopodium album, which are responsible for its antimicrobial activity [64]. The Cannabinoids, which have anti-inflammatory properties, are contained in the chemical components of Cannabis sativa [65]. The phytochemical study of Cynodon dactylon revealed details of flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, saponins, volatile oils and flavonoids, which are responsible for its dermatological and anti-inflammatory action [66]. Similarly phenolic acids, flavonoids (quercetin, rutin) and alkaloids like berberine, berbamine, palmatine, columbamine, jatrorrhizine, oxyacanthine in Berberis aristata, Alkaloids like berberine, berbamine, chenabine, karakoramine, palmatine, baluchistanamine, gilgitine, jhelumine, punjabine, sindamine in Berberis lycium [67], pentadecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, heptadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, eicosanoic acid, steroids, amino acids (glycine, histidine) and flavonoids (tricin, kaempferol, quercetin) in Capsella bursa-pastoris [68], alkaloids (atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine), glycosides, saponins and tannins in Datura stramonium [69], flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, steroids (phytosterols), saponins and tannins in Equisetum arvense [70], glyxylic acid, oxalic acid, vitexin, isovitexin, netural lipids, glycolipids, vitamin c, phaspholipids, fatty acids and tocopherols in Oxalis corniculate [67]. Nepalin, nepodin and rumicin in Rumex hastatus, flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, rutin), phenolic acids (caffeic acid, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid), fatty acids (linoleic acid 67.9%), carbohydrates (polysaccharides) in Solanum nigrum [70], taraxacin, taraxacerine, cerylalcohol, lactuce-roltaraxacin, choline, inulin, tannin, etereal oil, vitamin C, xanthophylls, potassium and vitamin A in Taraxacum officinale [67], alkaloids (betaine, choline), amino acids, carbohydrates, protein polymer (neutral and acidic), carotenoids (carotenes) and saponins in Urtica dioica [71]. Curculigenin in Curculigo orchioides [72], caryophyllene oxide, β-Caryophyllene, germacrene, β-Pinene in Juglans regia [55]. All of these compounds show antibacterial, antidiabetic, wound healing, hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory activities. The majority of medicinal preparations use only one plant species, but certain medications are made with two or more plants, which improve their therapeutic effectiveness [73,74]. In the current findings, it was observed that the most frequently used plant parts were leaves followed by flowers, roots and fruits, etc. Due to harsh environmental conditions and non-availability of veterinary facilities at higher altitudes, the rural people of high altitude in Himachal Pradesh used traditional remedies to treat their livestock’s illnesses [21,50].

4.2. Prospects of Using Wild Plant Species in Horticulture

The inhabitants were using the different plant species not only to feed and treat the diseases of their livestock, but also to nurture themselves. Plant species like Rubus niveus, Rubus ellipticus, Pyrus pashia, Prinsepia utilis, Berberis lycium, Elaeagnus umbellata and Juglans regia are well known for their fruit yields [18,75,76,77,78,79]. J. regia and P. pashia are important fruiting plants as they are employed by inhabitants for their fruit production, which is a good source of their income [19,80]. The oil extracts of P. utilis are consumed by locals and the remaining part of the fruit is used for feeding the cattle along with other dietary products [81,82,83]. It was also observed that some plant species and their products were used by locals for different agricultural and horticultural activities. The organic manure was prepared by using plants like Amaranthus blitum, Artemisia vestita, Bromus hordeaceus, Cannabis sativa, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Erigeron bonariensis, Fagopyrum acutatum, Sonchus asper and Urtica dioica along with cattle dung. The use of cannabis manure has been reported to be effective in removing harmful soil elements [84]. The plant residues were also used in the preparation of vermiwash, which is used in various agricultural and horticultural activities [85]. The paste of roots of Cirsium arvense and Rubus ellipticus was practiced to remove the root borer from the apple plant in the study region. Many researchers have reported on Rubus ellipticus for its antimicrobial activities and the extraction of silver nanoparticles which act as pathogen destroyers and root enhancers [86]. Inhabitants also showed that mulching their plant nursery with branches of Cedrus deodara and Abies pindrow was also beneficial in retaining moisture in the soil, keeping pests away and controlling weeds. Some plants were difficult to find in the wild and some was used to enhance their economy therefore, people have started cultivation of such species in their fields. For instance, P. pashia is used for the establishment of pear orchards and this species is abundant in the wild and locals collect their seeds and grow them in their fields. Similarly, it was difficult to collect herbs such as Valeriana jatamansi and Bergenia ciliata, so they are grown by the villagers in their gardens. These approaches to preserving wild plants have been employed by many communities throughout the world [87,88,89,90].
Therefore, proper documentation, conservation and pharmaceutical studies are needed to find some important medicinal plants from unexplored regions of Himachal Pradesh in India. In the literature study, it was found that Aruncus dioicus, Asplenium dalhousiae, Galinsoga quadriradiata, Gentiana argentea, Malva pusilla, Silene vulgaris and Viburnum grandiflorum were documented for the first time for ethnoveterinary purposes from the study area of Maraog region in Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh, India. Future pharmacological studies for the illnesses suggested by current survey respondents could be particularly interesting for these species. Increased interest in the chemical profile and biological activity of these species is expected as a result of this new knowledge. Their significance lies in the possibilities of discovering new medical plant uses and herbal therapies in veterinary medicine.

5. Conclusions

The rural people of Maraog region in tehsil Chopal of district Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, India, used ethnoveterinary plants to treat their livestock diseases. The current study documents the ethnoveterinary medicines, which can be used as a database for scientific research studies in the future. It was observed that, from all categories of plants, herbs and shrubs were the most documented ethnoveterinary plants by the native informants of study site. In this study, most of the plants are first time documented for ethnoveterinary purposes from Maraog region in tehsil Chopal of district Shimla, so its urgent need to document different medicinal plants from unexplored regions of Himachal Pradesh. In the study area, internally and externally medicinal formulations were used to treat livestock illnesses. The male informants of the study site possess good traditional knowledge as compared to the female informants. The rural people reported that new generation is not much interested in traditional knowledge due to the social, cultural and modernization, so it is urgently needed to document and conserve ethnomedicinal plants used for both human and livestock diseases in the rural areas of Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh, India.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/horticulturae7100351/s1, Supplementary Information S1: (A) Demographic Data, (B) Ethnoveterinary Plant Uses and (C) Informants Declaration.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, writing—original draft preparation: M.K., S.D., R., S.S. and S.P. (Sunil Puri); Methodology, Investigation and writing—original draft preparation: P.P., R., A.P., R.J., M.A. (Mansoor Ali), M.T., N.K., S.P. (Suraj Prakash), S.R. (Sonia Rathour) and S.J.; Software, writing—review and editing and Formal Analysis: S.P.B., D.C., C.S., S.R. (Sureshkumar Rajalingam), M.S., S.D., S.S., S.C., S.N., M.K.S., R.D.D., M.A. (M. Alblihed), A.F.E.-k. and M.M.A.-D.; Visualization: S.P.B., M.K. and M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article or Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

The authors are highly thankful to BSI, Dehradun for identification of plant samples. This work was supported by the Taif University Researchers Supporting Program (Project number: TURSP-2020/93), Taif University, Saudi Arabia. Also, the authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University, Abha, KSA for funding this work under Grant number (R.G.P.2/47/42).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors confirm no conflict of interest.

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