Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds in Paint Production Plants: Levels and Potential Human Health Risks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Site Description
2.2. Sampling Method
2.3. Sample Preparation and Analysis
2.4. Quality Control (QC)/Quality Assurance (QA)
2.5. Health Risk Assessment
Parameter | Values | Data Collection |
---|---|---|
Exposure time to VOCs (hours/days)—ET | 8 | Questionnaire |
Exposure frequency (day/year)—EF | 300 | Questionnaire |
Exposure duration(years)—ED | 30 | USEPA, 2002 [25] |
Lifetime (day)—LT | 25,600 | USEPA, 2011 [28] |
Inhalation rate (m3 day−1)—IR | 16 | USEPA, 2011 [25] |
Body weight (kg)—BW | 72 ± 9.42 | Questionnaire |
Average lifetime (hours)—AT | 33,650 | USEPA, 2011 [28] |
Agent | RFC (mg m−3) | Cancer Slop Factor (mg kg−1 day−1) | USEPA/IARC Class | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Benzene | 0.03 | 0.029 | A | IRIS a |
Toluene | 5 | … | IRIS | |
Ethylbenzene | 1 | 0.0087 | 2B | IRIS |
m,p-Xylene | 0.1 | … | IRIS | |
Styrene | 1 | 5.7 × 10−4 | 2B | CEP b |
n-Hexane | 0.7 | … | IRIS | |
n-Heptane | 0.4 | … | IRIS | |
n-Nonane | 0.02 | … | IRIS | |
Trichloroethylene | 0.002 | 1.1 × 10−2 | 2A | IRIS |
Tetrachloroethylene | 0.04 | 2.07 × 10−2 | 2A | IRIS |
n-Butyl acetate | 1.429 | … | WHO c | |
n-Octane | 1.111 | … | MHLW d | |
n-Decane | 0.836 | … | Sagunski and Mangelsdorf [29] | |
Dichlorofluoromethane | 0.330 | … | IRIS | |
Acetone | 56 | … | OECD e |
3. Statistical Analysis
4. Result and Discussion
4.1. Levels of the VOCs in the Personal Air in the Paint Factories
4.2. Health Risk Assessment
5. Conclusions and Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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a VOCs | b TLV-TWA (ppm) | Mean ± SD (µg m−3) (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
c OEM Production | d Production | e CED Production | Washing Salon-PC | f OEM Lab | g PC Lab | Dispatch | h CED Topcoat | ||
Benzene i (LOD = 0.5) | 0.5 | 63.89 ± 0.27 (0.09%) | 447.25 ± 0.21 (0.33%) | 479.20 ± 0.23 (0.52%) | 1277.87 ± 0.32 (0.51%) | 31.94 ± 0.08 (0.24%) | 63.89 ± 0.65 (8.75%) | 63.89 ± 0.17 (0.37%) | 543.09 ± 0.73 (1.25%) |
Toluene (LOD = 0.7) | 20 | 2110.36 ± 0.53 (2.98%) | 14,056.53 ± 0.56 (10.49%) | 46,088.84 ± 0.14 (50.26%) | 37,873.49 ± 0.13 (16.87%) | 527.59 ± 0.34 (4.04%) | 37.68 ± 0.43 (5.16%) | 452.22 ± 0.56 (2.63%) | 19,219.3 ± 0.41 (44.41%) |
Ethylbenzene (LOD = 0.5) | 20 | 30,526.58 ± 0.18 (43.14%) | 22,232.73 ± 0.32 (16.59%) | 8337.27 ± 0.57 (9.09%) | 91,188.95 ± 0.34 (39.95%) | 2127.74 ± 0.45 (16.31%) | 43.42 ± 0.75 (5.94%) | 5992.41 ± 0.17 (34.85%) | 4081.79 ± 0.37 (9.43%) |
m,p-Xylene (LOD = 0.7) | 20 | 37,473.61 ± 0.38 (52.95%) | 92,489.91 ± 0.65 (69.03%) | 35,997.24 ± 0.45 (39.260%) | 81,200.06 ± 0.45 (39.95%) | 8814.76 ± 0.76 (67.57%) | 43.42 ± 0.33 (5.95%) | 5688.34 ± 0.63 (33.09%) | 18,411.1 ± 0.18 (42.55%) |
Styrene (LOD = 0.4) | 10 | 42.59 ± 0.42 (0.06%) | 42.59 ± 0.12 (0.03%) | 42.59 ± 0.24 (0.05%) | 85.19 ± 0.26 (0.03%) | 38.33 ± 0.18 (0.29%) | 42.59 ± 0.34 (5.84%) | 38.33 ± 0.69 (0.22%) | 85.19 ± 0.58 (0.22%) |
n-Hexane (LOD = 0.4) | 50 | 35.24 ± 0.17 (0.05%) | 35.24 ± 0.68 (0.03%) | 70.49 ± 0.27 (0.08%) | 105.74 ± 0.18 (0.04%) | 35.24 ± 0.38 (0.27%) | 35.24 ± 0.19 (4.83%) | 35.24 ± 0.13 (0.21%) | 105.74 ± 0.65 (0.24%) |
n-Heptane (LOD = 0.06) | 400 | 40.98 ± 0.14 (0.06%) | 40.98 ± 0.23 (0.03%) | 40.98 ± 0.18 (0.04%) | 81.97 ± 0.61 (0.03%) | 40.98 ± 0.37 (0.31%) | 40.98 ± 0.23 (5.61%) | 36.88 ± 0.25 (0.21%) | 81.97 ± 0.23 (0.19%) |
n-Nonane (LOD = 0.04) | 200 | 52.43 ± 0.23 (0.07%) | 52.43 ± 0.13 (0.04%) | 52.43 ± 0.11 (0.06%) | 104.86 ± 0.76 (0.04%) | 314.6 ± 0.78 (2.41%) | 52.43 ± 0.12 (7.18%) | 41.94 ± 0.27 (0.24%) | 104.86 ± 0.28 (0.24%) |
Trichloroethylene (LOD = 0.6) | 10 | 53.73 ± 0.23 (0.08%) | 53.73 ± 0.16 (0.04%) | 53.73 ± 0.23 (0.06%) | 53.73 ± 0.43 (0.04%) | 53.73 ± 0.17 (0.21%) | 53.73 ± 0.52 (7.36%) | 53.73 ± 0.48 (0.31%) | 107.47 ± 0.56 (0.25%) |
Tetrachloroethylene (LOD = 2) | 25 | 67.82 ± 0.47 (0.10%) | 67.82 ± 0.73 (0.05%) | 47.47 ± 0.24 (0.05%) | 67.82 ± 0.23 (0.03%) | 67.828 ± 0.27 (0.36%) | 67.82 ± 0.33 (9.29%) | 67.828 ± 0.27 (0.39%) | 33.91 ± 0.15 (0.08%) |
n-Butyl acetate (LOD = 0.9) | 150 | 47.51 ± 0.29 (0.07%) | 47.51 ± 0.39 (0.04%) | 47.51 ± 0.19 (0.05%) | 47.51 ± 0.21 (0.02%) | 28.51 ± 0.21 (0.22%) | 47.51 ± 0.19 (6.51%) | 28.51 ± 0.2 (0.17%) | 47.51 ± 0.24 (0.11%) |
n-Octane (LOD = 0.3) | 300 | 46.72 ± 0.76 (0.07%) | 46.72 ± 0.21 (0.03%) | 46.72 ± 0.28 (0.05%) | 93.44 ± 0.81 (0.04%) | 280.32 ± 0.38 (2.15) | 46.72 ± 0.52 (6.40%) | 37.38 ± 0.84 (0.22%) | 93.44 ± 0.19 (0.22%) |
n-Decane (LOD = 0.06) | 45 | 58.20 ± 0.65 (0.08%) | 58.20 ± 0.13 (0.04%) | 58.20 ± 0.72 (0.06%) | 116.39 ± 0.33 (0.05%) | 40.74 ± 0.73 (0.31%) | 58.20 ± 0.84 (7.97%) | 400.29± 0.12 (0.24%) | 116.39 ± 0.14 (0.27%) |
Dichlorofluoromethane (LOD = 30) | 1000 | 97.65 ± 0.82 (0.14%) | 97.65 ± 0.95 (0.07%) | 97.65 ± 0.27 (0.11%) | 146.48 ± 0.38 (0.06%) | 48.83 ± 0.17 (0.37%) | 48.83 ± 0.79 (6.69%) | 4589.66 ± 0.29 (26.70%) | 146.48 ± 0.48 (0.34%) |
Acetone (LOD = 20) | 500 | 47.52 ± 0.21 (0.07%) | 4205.29 ± 0.64 (3.14%) | 237.59 ± 0.84 (0.26%) | 5702.09 ± 0.46 (2.31%) | 641.48 ± 0.33 (4.92%) | 47.52 ± 0.25 (6.51%) | 23.76 ± 0.57 (0.14%) | 95.03 ± 0.52 (0.22%) |
Pollutant | OEM Salon | Production Salon-PC | CED Production | Washing Salon-PC | OEM Lab | PC Lab | Dispatch | CED Topcoat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exposure concentration (mg m−3) | ||||||||
Benzene | 0.137 | 0.957 | 1.025 | 2.734 | 0.068 | 0.137 | 0.137 | 1.162 |
Toluene | 4.515 | 30.076 | 98.615 | 89.100 | 1.129 | 0.081 | 0.968 | 41.123 |
Ethylbenzene | 65.317 | 47.571 | 17.839 | 210.910 | 4.553 | 0.093 | 12.822 | 8.734 |
Xylene | 80.181 | 197.898 | 77.022 | 210.906 | 18.861 | 0.093 | 12.171 | 39.394 |
Styrene | 0.091 | 0.091 | 0.091 | 0.182 | 0.082 | 0.091 | 0.082 | 0.182 |
Dichlorofluoromethane | 0.209 | 0.209 | 0.209 | 0.313 | 0.104 | 0.104 | 9.820 | 0.313 |
Acetone | 0.102 | 8.998 | 0.508 | 12.201 | 1.373 | 0.102 | 0.051 | 0.203 |
n-Hexane | 0.075 | 0.075 | 0.151 | 0.226 | 0.075 | 0.075 | 0.075 | 0.226 |
n-Heptane | 0.088 | 0.088 | 0.088 | 0.175 | 0.088 | 0.088 | 0.079 | 0.175 |
n-Octane | 0.100 | 0.100 | 0.100 | 0.200 | 0.600 | 0.100 | 0.080 | 0.200 |
n-Nonane | 0.112 | 0.112 | 0.112 | 0.224 | 0.673 | 0.112 | 0.090 | 0.224 |
n-Decane | 0.125 | 0.125 | 0.125 | 0.249 | 0.087 | 0.125 | 0.087 | 0.249 |
n-Butylacetate | 0.102 | 0.102 | 0.102 | 0.102 | 0.061 | 0.102 | 0.061 | 0.102 |
Trichloroethylene | 0.115 | 0.115 | 0.115 | 0.230 | 0.057 | 0.115 | 0.115 | 0.230 |
Tetrachloroethylene | 0.145 | 0.145 | 0.102 | 0.145 | 0.102 | 0.145 | 0.145 | 0.073 |
Hazard quotient | ||||||||
Benzene | 4.56 | 31.90 | 34.18 | 91.14 | 2.28 | 4.56 | 4.56 | 38.73 |
Toluene | 0.90 | 6.02 | 19.72 | 17.82 | 0.23 | 0.02 | 0.19 | 8.22 |
Ethylbenzene | 65.32 | 47.57 | 17.84 | 210.91 | 4.55 | 0.09 | 12.82 | 8.73 |
Xylene | 801.81 | 1978.98 | 770.22 | 2109.06 | 188.61 | 0.93 | 121.71 | 393.94 |
Styrene | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.18 |
Dichlorofluoromethane | 0.63 | 0.63 | 0.63 | 0.95 | 0.32 | 0.32 | 29.76 | 0.95 |
Acetone | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.01 | 0.22 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
n-Hexane | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.22 | 0.32 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.32 |
n-Heptane | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.44 | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.44 |
n-Octane | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.24 | 0.72 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.24 |
n-Nonane | 5.61 | 5.61 | 5.61 | 11.22 | 33.66 | 5.61 | 4.49 | 11.22 |
n-Decane | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.30 | 0.10 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 0.30 |
n-Butylacetate | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.07 |
Trichloroethylene | 57.49 | 57.49 | 57.49 | 114.98 | 28.75 | 57.49 | 57.49 | 114.98 |
Tetrachloroethylene | 3.63 | 3.63 | 2.54 | 3.63 | 2.54 | 3.63 | 3.63 | 1.81 |
Chronic daily intake (μg kg−1 day−1) | ||||||||
Benzene | 0.001 | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.027 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.012 |
Toluene | 0.045 | 0.301 | 0.988 | 0.892 | 0.011 | 0.001 | 0.010 | 0.412 |
Ethylbenzene | 0.654 | 0.476 | 0.179 | 2.112 | 0.046 | 0.001 | 0.128 | 0.087 |
Xylene | 0.803 | 1.982 | 0.771 | 2.112 | 0.189 | 0.001 | 0.122 | 0.395 |
Styrene | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
Dichlorofluoromethane | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.098 | 0.003 |
Acetone | 0.001 | 0.090 | 0.005 | 0.122 | 0.014 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
n-Hexane | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
n-Heptane | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
n-Octane | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.006 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
n-Nonane | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.007 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
n-Decane | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
n-Butylacetate | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Trichloroethylene | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
Tetrachloroethylene | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
ELCR | OEM Salon | Production Salon-PC | CED Production | Washing Salon-PC | OEM Lab | PC Lab | Dispatch | CED Topcoat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benzene | 3.97 × 10−5 | 2.78 × 10−4 | 2.98 × 10−4 | 7.94 × 10−4 | 1.99 × 10−5 | 3.97 × 10−5 | 3.97 × 10−5 | 3.37 × 10−4 |
Ethylbenzene | 1.64 × 10−3 | 1.19 × 10−3 | 4.47 × 10−3 | 5.28 × 10−2 | 1.14 × 10−4 | 2.33 × 10−6 | 3.21 × 10−3 | 2.19 × 10−4 |
Trichloroethylene | 1.27 × 10−5 | 1.27 × 10−5 | 1.27 × 10−5 | 2.53 × 10−5 | 6.33 × 10−6 | 1.27 × 10−5 | 1.27 × 10−5 | 2.53 × 10−5 |
Tetrachloroethylene | 2.91 × 10−5 | 2.91 × 10−5 | 2.03 × 10−5 | 2.91 × 10−5 | 2.03 × 10−5 | 2.91 × 10−5 | 2.91 × 10−5 | 1.45 × 10−5 |
Styrene | 5.2 × 10−7 | 5.2 × 10−7 | 5.2 × 10−7 | 1.04 × 10−6 | 4.68 × 10−7 | 5.2 × 10−7 | 4.68 × 10−7 | 1.04 × 10−6 |
Total LTCR | 1.15 × 10−3 | 8.93 × 10−4 | 3.77 × 10−4 | 3.85 × 10−3 | 8.87 × 10−5 | 1.8 × 10−5 | 2.4 × 10−4 | 2.28 × 10−4 |
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Ghobakhloo, S.; Khoshakhlagh, A.H.; Morais, S.; Mazaheri Tehrani, A. Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds in Paint Production Plants: Levels and Potential Human Health Risks. Toxics 2023, 11, 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020111
Ghobakhloo S, Khoshakhlagh AH, Morais S, Mazaheri Tehrani A. Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds in Paint Production Plants: Levels and Potential Human Health Risks. Toxics. 2023; 11(2):111. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020111
Chicago/Turabian StyleGhobakhloo, Safiye, Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh, Simone Morais, and Ashraf Mazaheri Tehrani. 2023. "Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds in Paint Production Plants: Levels and Potential Human Health Risks" Toxics 11, no. 2: 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11020111