Pathways for Hydrogen Adoption in the Brazilian Trucking Industry: A Low-Carbon Alternative to Fossil Fuels

Abstract

The growing demand for sustainable solutions in the transportation sector and global decarbonization goals have fueled debate on using hydrogen as an energy source. Although hydrogen’s potential is recognized in Brazil, its application in heavy-duty vehicles still faces structural and technological barriers. This study aimed to analyze the viability of hydrogen as an energy alternative for trucks in Brazil. The research adopted an exploratory qualitative approach, based on the expert analysis method, through semi-structured interviews with development engineers, representatives of heavy-duty vehicle manufacturers, and researchers specializing in hydrogen technologies. The data were organized into a thematic framework and interpreted using content analysis. The results show that, although there is growing interest and ongoing initiatives, challenges such as the cost of fuel cells, the lack of refueling infrastructure, and low technological maturity hinder large-scale adoption. From a theoretical perspective, the study contributes by integrating specialized literature with practical insights from key industry players, broadening the understanding of the energy transition. In practical terms, it outlines some strategic paths, such as expanding technological development and forming partnerships. From a social perspective, it emphasizes the importance of hydrogen as a pillar for sustainable, low-carbon mobility, capable of positively impacting public health and mitigating climate change.

1. Introduction

The increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has driven the development of technologies to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The automotive industry, responsible for approximately 19% of global CO₂ emissions, faces challenges in mitigating its environmental impact. In this context, several regulations, restrictions, and guidelines have been implemented in recent years, encouraging the transition to more sustainable alternatives aligned with global decarbonization commitments [1].

Concerns about energy sustainability have been a central topic in global discussions, especially given the depletion of fossil fuels and the environmental impact associated with their use. Thus, various theories and solutions have been proposed to replace traditional fuels to ensure a cleaner and more efficient energy model. Among the main strategies adopted globally are the electrification of transportation and the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Hydrogen is a promising alternative, primarily through fuel cells that power electric propulsion systems. It encourages the adoption of emission-free technologies, as it stands out for its high energy density (142 MJ/kg) and for generating only water as a byproduct when used as fuel [2].

In Brazil, hydrogen has been increasingly explored as an alternative for the energy transition. The country has the potential to produce green hydrogen, utilizing its predominantly renewable energy matrix, composed of sources such as hydroelectric, solar, and wind power. Furthermore, ethanol emerges as a strategic vector for hydrogen production through reformers, allowing for the use of existing infrastructure in the biofuels sector. These characteristics position Brazil as a potential leader in adopting hydrogen as a clean and renewable energy source. Despite this, the use of hydrogen in the Brazilian heavy-duty transportation sector still faces challenges, primarily related to technological limitations, the lack of adequate infrastructure, and the high costs involved in developing and implementing this technology. Although there is progress in the international literature on the adoption of hydrogen in the automotive sector [3,4], there is a significant gap in studies focused on the Brazilian context, especially in the heavy-duty transportation segment. It makes understanding local specificities and the actions needed to enable this transition difficult.

Against this backdrop, this article aims to investigate the current status of the energy transition to hydrogen in the trucking sector in Brazil, identifying the advantages and disadvantages of this technology, as well as the short- and long-term actions required for its implementation. Furthermore, it seeks to provide insight into ongoing initiatives, the challenges faced, and emerging opportunities in this segment, considering the environmental, economic, and social impacts of adopting hydrogen as an energy source.

This study is justified by the need for sustainable energy alternatives that mitigate climate change’s effects and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the heavy-duty transportation sector. Furthermore, hydrogen-based solutions can generate economic benefits, such as creating new markets, generating jobs, strengthening domestic industry, and promoting environmental and social gains aligned with international sustainability commitments. From a theoretical perspective, this article contributes to filling a gap in the Brazilian literature by offering an applied and contextualized analysis of the viability of hydrogen in heavy-duty transportation in Brazil. To contextualize the relevance of hydrogen adoption in the Brazilian trucking sector, it is important to note that approximately 65% of the country’s freight relies on road transport, which consumes nearly 45 billion liters of diesel annually and emits around 185 million tons of CO₂, representing about 40% of transport-sector emissions [5]. This heavy dependence on fossil fuels underscores the urgency of exploring alternatives such as hydrogen. Comparative assessments of energy costs show that, while diesel currently remains less expensive per unit of energy, projections indicate that green hydrogen could achieve cost parity by 2030, particularly in regions with abundant renewable resources [6]. Furthermore, prospective adoption scenarios suggest that hydrogen trucks could progressively gain market share in Brazil if supported by adequate infrastructure, favorable policies, and declining technology costs [7], thereby reinforcing the strategic role of hydrogen in reducing emissions and advancing sustainable mobility.

This paper is organized into six sections, namely: introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Advantages of Hydrogen as an Alternative to Fossil Fuels

Shared mobility and the advancement of fuel cell technologies have emerged as important pillars for the automotive sector’s future, notable for their energy efficiency, sustainability, and heavy-duty applicability. In the electric vehicle landscape, comparing battery-powered vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs) highlights significant advantages for FCEVs. Despite the limitations of BEVs, such as low range and long recharge times, FCEVs offer greater range, shorter refueling times, and greater suitability for heavy-duty transportation and long-distance travel [8,9].

Fuel cells, especially the PEMFC (proton exchange membrane) type, stand out for their high energy conversion efficiency, reaching up to 60% compared to 33–35% for conventional combustion processes. Furthermore, their operation at relatively low temperatures (60–80 °C) allows for rapid responses to variable energy demands, making them highly suitable for automotive applications [10]. The chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in these devices generates electricity with water as the only byproduct, ensuring clean and quiet operation [11].

These characteristics position FCEVs as a robust and sustainable solution. Hydrogen’s superior energy density, its scalability to different production methods, and significantly shorter refueling times offer advantages over batteries, which suffer from degradation in long-term applications and associated high costs [12]. Furthermore, renewable hydrogen, produced through electrolysis powered by clean energy sources, emerges as a viable alternative to mitigate battery limitations in long-term storage. Although Brazil’s industrial hydrogen production relies mainly on steam methane reforming (SMR), meeting over 90% of demand for refineries and chemical plants [13], the country is rapidly developing renewable hydrogen pathways. Leveraging its abundant renewable electricity (>80% of the grid), extensive sugarcane biomass, and high wind and solar potential, Brazil is positioning itself as a future leader and exporter of green hydrogen [14].

In the context of heavy-duty vehicles, such as industrial trucks and city buses, hydrogen proves to be the ideal solution. In addition to overcoming the low efficiency of batteries in this segment, FCEVs offer greater operational reliability, lower maintenance costs, and rapid refueling with minimal downtime [15,16]. Integrating hybrid systems, such as fuel cell generators and regenerative braking, further enhances energy efficiency, excelling in urban and industrial settings [17].

From an economic, social, and environmental perspective, hydrogen is considered a sustainable energy source. It combines relatively high efficiency—exceeding 50% in many cases—with the possibility of using highly efficient electric motors, which offer additional benefits such as reduced idling and energy recovery during braking [18].

Brazil has made significant progress in implementing public policies to promote hydrogen as a substitute for fossil fuels, aiming at energy transition and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The National Policy for Low-Carbon Hydrogen (Law No. 14,948/2024) establishes regulatory guidelines for the production, transportation, and commercialization of hydrogen, defining low-carbon, renewable, and green hydrogen, with the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Biofuels (ANP) as the primary regulator. The special tax incentive regime (Rehidro) and the Low-Carbon Hydrogen Development Program (Law No. 14,990/2024) support research, development, and innovation. The National Hydrogen Program (PNH₂) and the Brazilian Hydrogen Certification System (SBCH₂) provide sectoral guidance and promote sustainable hydrogen production.

2.2. Disadvantages of Hydrogen Being Used as an Alternative to Fossil Fuels

Fuel cells have disadvantages that limit their widespread adoption. Their sensitivity to vibrations and shocks can cause gas leaks, structural damage, and operational failures, especially in mobile applications [19]. This vulnerability necessitates extensive maintenance and repair activities, which increase operating costs and pose challenges for sectors such as the automotive industry.

The high development and manufacturing costs of fuel cells and low market penetration make their viability challenging in the short term [9]. The dedicated architecture of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and low production volumes are factors that drive up costs and hinder their competitiveness relative to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), which have gained popularity due to lower prices and greater consumer acceptance [20]. From a technical perspective, hydrogen’s flammability and low minimum ignition energy increase the risk of explosions. At the same time, its ability to penetrate metals can weaken critical components such as joints and piping [21]. Furthermore, hydrogen production, storage, and transportation require safe technologies and infrastructure, posing significant challenges for large-scale adoption.

Technological barriers are also evident in the performance of fuel cells. The presence of carbon monoxide (CO) in the fuel stream, for example, can drastically reduce their efficiency, requiring advanced methods, such as Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), to monitor and mitigate the impacts of this contamination [22]. The complexity of fuel cell systems and the need for endurance testing that simulates real-world operating conditions highlight the need for advances to increase their reliability [23]. The high sensitivity of fuel cells, electricity costs, and hydrogen transportation distances, due to the high energy consumption in their production and the logistical complexity involved, are factors that, combined with dependence on specific markets and a lack of innovation, hinder their acceptance and widespread adoption [24].

FCEVs face additional challenges compared to battery electric vehicles, such as lower energy efficiency in some applications and high refueling and maintenance costs. Although they offer advantages in range and refueling times, these characteristics are not sufficient to overcome the economic and technological barriers in the current global automotive market.

2.3. Difficulties in Using Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles

One of the challenges is the lack of infrastructure in rural areas, such as the absence of refueling stations and technical support systems [8]. Handling hydrogen requires safety requirements, such as efficient leak detection and ventilation systems, due to the high risk of explosions [19].

The costs of hydrogen production, storage, and transportation represent barriers. Hydrogen purity is essential for operating proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), but the purification process increases costs [25]. Furthermore, impurities such as carbon monoxide (CO) can poison the cell’s catalysts, reducing operational efficiency. This problem is exacerbated in countries that still rely on traditional hydrogen production methods, such as steam reforming of natural gas, which generates CO levels above the standards established by ISO 14687:2019 [22].

Hydrogen storage requires high-density solutions, such as high-pressure tanks or cryogenic storage [2]. Furthermore, hydrogen transportation remains challenging due to the high energy consumption required for compression and liquefaction.

Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) remain more expensive than internal combustion and hybrid alternatives due to expensive materials, such as platinum catalysts, and the low production scale [26]. Commercial FCEV powertrains are mechanically simpler than ICEs but remain materially and architecturally complex, with high costs and limited durability concentrated in fuel-cell stacks, platinum-based catalysts, and balance-of-plant components. Hydrogen storage at high pressures adds weight and expense, while auxiliary systems—DCDC converters, specialized HVAC, safety features, and battery buffers—further increase integration complexity. Heavy-duty applications face additional scaling and durability challenges. Overall, without substantial reductions in stack and catalyst costs, tank manufacturing, and system integration expenses, FCEV purchase prices and total cost of ownership will continue to limit widespread adoption [27,28,29,30,31].

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) exhibit moderate on-vehicle efficiencies (40–60% for PEMFC systems, ~58% packaged). However, overall well-to-wheel efficiency can drop to around 30% when accounting for electrolysis, compression, transport, and dispensing. Energy performance is highly sensitive to hydrogen production pathways, with electrolyzer efficiency and supply chain losses causing significant variability. Consequently, FCEVs’ climate and energy benefits—particularly for buses and fleets—depend critically on the availability of low-carbon, high-efficiency hydrogen; otherwise, battery electric vehicles or direct electrification may offer superior performance [32,33,34,35].

In the social context, there is a need to increase public acceptance of hydrogen vehicles [36]. Consumer unfamiliarity with the technology and the absence of educational campaigns hinder its widespread dissemination. Furthermore, the perception of safety, often associated with the risk of explosions, reinforces market resistance.

Infrastructure gaps, uncertain economics, and region-specific technical and policy barriers constrain consumer and fleet adoption of hydrogen FCEVs. Sparse refueling networks reduce range confidence and vehicle resale value, while high purchase costs and uncertain hydrogen prices keep total cost of ownership above conventional options. Rapid improvements in battery electric vehicles further limit passenger-market competitiveness, leaving FCEVs potentially viable mainly in heavy-duty or long-range niches. Additional hurdles in emerging markets include low consumer awareness, insufficient policy support, technical constraints, and perceived safety and operational complexity, all of which dampen adoption prospects [32,37,38,39].

Another challenge is developing a skilled workforce to maintain and operate fuel cell systems. The technology requires specific training for mechanics and engineers, which implies training and educational infrastructure investments [40]. Therefore, the obstacles to the widespread adoption of hydrogen as an energy alternative include economic barriers, technical challenges related to production and storage, infrastructure issues, and social acceptance. Overcoming these barriers requires coordinated efforts between governments, industries, and research institutions to ensure this promising technology’s economic viability and environmental sustainability.

2.4. Actions for the Application of Hydrogen

The importance of aligning public policies and corporate strategies to drive the green transition, as evidenced by the initiatives of Hyundai and Toyota [40]. The rapid adoption of electric vehicles, especially those powered by fuel cells, depends on adequate infrastructure, government incentives, and technological advances enabling economic and operational viability.

Short-term economic viability is driven by optimizing existing technology and the strategic use of shared platforms. Increasing fuel cells’ specific capacity and lifespan, reducing production costs through scalability, and optimizing materials are priorities. It includes improving catalysts and the geometry of bipolar plates, actions that can make mass production economically viable [25].

Hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure investments are needed, with special attention to electrolyzers powered by renewable sources [41]. Furthermore, integrating more reliable sensors is essential to ensure the safety of hydrogen handling in practical applications [21].

There is a need for regulations to promote the acceptance of clean energy vehicles. At the same time, training for technicians and maintenance teams is essential, ensuring operational support and building market confidence.

Short-term actions should also include adapting existing platforms for hybrid and electric vehicles. Shared architectures between battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) can generate economies of scale and reduce costs [20]. This approach allows for the use of similar design spaces for energy storage systems, the optimization of resources, and the acceleration of the technological transition.

Progress in hydrogen fuel cell technology, such as PEMFCs, is essential. Fuel cell production can be economically viable if there is efficient mass production and a detailed analysis of the components’ life cycle, including recycling strategies [42].

New materials for conductive membranes and catalysts free of noble metals, such as platinum, are needed to reduce costs and improve fuel cell efficiency [43]. Moreover, technological advances are needed to overcome technical barriers, such as enhancing ion-conducting membranes and optimizing manufacturing systems for large-scale production [25].

Refueling infrastructure remains a crucial aspect. The successful deployment of hydrogen vehicles depends on government support, the creation of regulatory codes and standards, and the funding of pilot projects to develop hydrogen distribution networks [44].

The automotive sector’s transformation toward hybrid and electric vehicles can facilitate the transition to fuel cells [45]. Energy Management Systems (EMS) are key in integrating these technologies, offering solutions that maximize energy efficiency and reduce emissions.

Furthermore, while preliminary commercialization of fuel cell vehicles is feasible within 10 to 15 years, continued advancements are needed to achieve competitiveness with established technologies such as internal combustion engines [46]. This transition requires strengthening the supply chain and developing hydrogen storage and transportation technologies.

3. Methodological Procedures

Exploratory qualitative research is an empirical investigation of a current phenomenon in a real-life context, where the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly defined [47]. The exploratory qualitative research approach was chosen because it allows for a detailed and contextualized analysis of hydrogen adoption, enabling us to map the current and future status of the energy transition in the heavy-duty automotive sector in Brazil, and to investigate this phenomenon in its real-world setting. In this context, the expert interview method is best suited to explore the energy transition in this sector. Expert interviews are justified when the research seeks context-specific knowledge, experiential expertise, or process-related insights that only individuals with specialized roles or positions possess [48]. They argue that expert knowledge is often tacit, practice-oriented, and embedded in professional routines, making interviews a crucial method for retrieving it. As the authors argue, experts act as informants and representatives of specific functional knowledge systems, offering experience-based and structurally relevant insights to the research field.

The interviews were structured based on a script, allowing flexibility to delve deeper into relevant issues based on participants’ responses. The main objective was to identify experts’ perceptions of the challenges and opportunities of hydrogen adoption in the automotive sector. The script addressed key aspects of hydrogen adoption, including energy efficiency, deployment costs, necessary infrastructure, and technical and regulatory challenges.

The collected data were normalized and standardized to ensure consistency and facilitate interpretative analysis. Categorization is a fundamental technique in content analysis, allowing for grouping similar responses and identifying interview patterns [48]. This study used an approach that combined thematic coding with comparative analysis, normalizing interviewees’ responses into predefined categories. This technique enabled comparison between interviews and ensured that the data were presented clearly and aligned with the research objectives. It enabled a better understanding of the viability of hydrogen and its implications for the sustainable transportation sector.

Interviewees were selected based on three main criteria: (1) professional experience in the energy or transportation sector, (2) direct involvement with hydrogen technologies or decarbonization policies, and (3) representation from different segments of the supply chain, including manufacturers, suppliers, and policymakers. Thus, the interviews were conducted with five experienced professionals working at leading companies in the automotive, transportation, fuel, and industrial sectors. These sectors play a key role in developing technologies and strategies related to decarbonization and the energy transition, particularly focusing on using hydrogen as an alternative.

Interviewee 1, a representative of Company A, is a Product Development Manager in Latin America and has 19 years of experience in the field. Since 2006, he has dedicated himself to hydrogen initiatives, leading projects integrating alternative fuels into the automotive sector. Interviewee 2, associated with Company B, is a Product and Innovation Engineer with 11 years of experience. His specialization includes developing components and systems for the use of hydrogen in industrial and automotive applications. Interviewee 3, a researcher at Company C, is conducting postdoctoral research. His work focuses on developing emerging technologies that use hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels, particularly for commercial vehicles. Interviewee 4, an Engineering Manager Responsible for Design at Company D, holds a degree in Automotive Engineering and has been working since 2016 on developing alternatives to fossil fuels. His experience includes leading projects that combine energy efficiency and performance in the design of commercial vehicles. Interviewee 5, also affiliated with Company D, works as the Electric Vehicle Emobility Operations and Coordination Manager, with 13 years of experience. He leads strategic initiatives for implementing electric vehicles and using hydrogen as an energy carrier.

The interviewees belong to companies that play strategic roles in Brazil’s automotive and transportation sectors, each with distinct approaches to hydrogen adoption.

Company A has been Brazil’s leading global commercial vehicle manufacturer since 1997, in Sete Lagoas, Minas Gerais. Its national operations include an industrial plant with assembly, product development, and component production, meeting the demands of the Brazilian and Latin American markets. The company’s portfolio ranges from light vehicles to heavy trucks and solutions for public transportation and the military. Company B is a global leader in engineering and providing fluid control and motion technology solutions. Its presence in various industrial sectors offers products and technological solutions for controlling and moving fluids and gases efficiently and safely. Its operations span automotive, aerospace, energy, healthcare, construction, and industrial machinery. The organization stands out for its expertise in creating high-performance systems and components, including filters, valves, pumps, cylinders, connectors, and complete automation systems.

Company C is a global heavy-duty vehicle manufacturer, specializing in producing trucks, buses, and industrial and marine engines. The company develops technologies to reduce pollutant gas emissions and improve vehicle performance. Its portfolio includes heavy-duty vehicles, urban transportation, passenger transportation solutions, after-sales services, and technical support. The company has invested in connectivity, automation, and fuel alternatives, leading the automotive sector’s transition to a more sustainable model.

Company D is a global leader in the mobility and transportation sector, focusing on developing, manufacturing, and marketing heavy-duty vehicles, such as trucks and buses. The company invests in advanced technological solutions, including natural gas and electric engines, and is aligned with the challenges of future mobility. In addition to offering commercial vehicles, the company also provides fleet maintenance and support services.

To ensure robustness, we employed established procedures for qualitative research (e.g., triangulation of data sources and iterative coding cycles), strengthening the findings’ validity and reliability.

4. Findings

4.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Hydrogen

Interviewee 1 highlighted Brazil’s favorable context for hydrogen production: “Brazil has a predominantly clean energy matrix, with approximately 80% of its electricity coming from renewable sources. It allows for the production of green hydrogen with low environmental impact.” Furthermore, he emphasized that “Brazil has one of the lowest hydrogen production costs in the world (approximately US$4.4/kg), making it competitive with countries like China and Argentina.” In the automotive sector, he emphasized that “hydrogen’s high energy density (142 MJ/kg) enables superior range compared to current batteries” and that “hydrogen combustion engines could be a viable alternative, given Brazil’s limited access to advanced electrification technologies.” In fact, the current levelized cost of hydrogen in Latin America ranges from $3.70 to $5.90 per kilogram, already lower than the global average of $3.80 to $8.50 per kilogram [5].

Interviewee 2 reinforced the viability of hydrogen as a clean energy source and highlighted its potential for renewable energy storage. According to him, “hydrogen, when used in vehicles, generates fewer greenhouse gases, since its combustion or use in fuel cells results only in the emission of water (H₂O), unlike combustion vehicles, which release CO₂ and other pollutants.” He also highlighted Brazil’s economic potential: “Brazil, due to its great potential for renewable energy generation, could become a hydrogen exporter, leveraging its strategic position in the global market.”

Interviewee 3 highlighted hydrogen’s flexibility as a differentiator, especially in the automotive sector, where it can be used in fuel cells and adapted internal combustion engines. He emphasized that “Brazil already has a consolidated infrastructure for the production and distribution of ethanol, which facilitates the transition to the production of green hydrogen from ethanol” and that “converting ethanol into green hydrogen could put the country in a strategic position to export this hydrogen to markets such as Europe, Japan, and China.” However, he also highlighted technical challenges, mentioning that “the production of green hydrogen from ethanol involves specific chemical processes, such as steam reforming of ethanol” and that “currently, Brazil does not have the necessary infrastructure to export hydrogen on a large scale.”

Interviewees 4 and 5 highlighted the strategic importance of hydrogen for energy independence, especially in countries dependent on imported fossil fuels. Interviewee 4 emphasized that “hydrogen, especially green hydrogen, is considered a clean energy source, since its combustion does not generate pollutants or greenhouse gases, such as CO₂.” However, he warned that “it does not present clear economic advantages at this time, especially regarding the cost of production, distribution, and the final price to the consumer.”

Interviewee 5 also emphasized that “hydrogen has the potential to be a more efficient option, less dependent on rare materials, and more compatible with the abundant renewable resources in Brazil,” noting that “although battery technology for electric cars is evolving, the process of disposing of and reusing batteries remains a challenge.”

The advantages of hydrogen converge on three pillars: environmental sustainability, with significant emissions reductions; energy efficiency, with its ability to store and supply clean energy; and strategic potential, both for diversifying the energy matrix and for driving technological innovations. These benefits underscore hydrogen’s central role as a key element in transitioning to a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

Although hydrogen is widely recognized for its benefits and transformative potential in the energy sector, its implementation faces challenges that must be considered to enable its widespread adoption. Interviewee 1 emphasized that “hydrogen is an energy carrier, not a primary source. That is, it must be produced from other sources (such as electrolysis or ethanol reformation), which can limit its sustainability depending on the method used.” Furthermore, he emphasized that “storage requires high pressures, around 700 bar, requiring robust and safe systems, which demands advanced infrastructure and expensive technological solutions.” Another critical point raised was safety, since “hydrogen is highly flammable and more dangerous in the event of an impact than other gases such as natural gas.”

Insufficient infrastructure was cited as one of the main challenges by Interviewee 2. “The biggest disadvantage currently is the lack of adequate infrastructure. Brazil still has limited infrastructure for alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas (CNG), and the network of hydrogen stations is practically nonexistent.” Furthermore, he emphasized that “the cost of hydrogen is still high, especially considering the range of hydrogen-powered vehicles compared to diesel vehicles.”

Interviewee 3 pointed out that “the country already has a relatively clean energy matrix, especially with ethanol, which makes the transition to hydrogen less urgent.” He also highlighted the economic and technical challenges: “To produce green hydrogen at a competitive cost, Brazil would need substantial infrastructure, as the supply system requires high-resistance materials due to hydrogen’s aggressive characteristics, such as its tendency to cause corrosion and diffusion in materials.” Regarding safety, he noted that “hydrogen is highly flammable and requires special care, in addition to the use of specific materials, which increases the manufacturing and maintenance costs of storage and distribution systems.”

Interviewees 4 and 5 emphasized the difficulties related to hydrogen handling and transportation. Interviewee 4 mentioned that “hydrogen is highly flammable and can pose risks in the event of leaks or accidents, due to its ability to form explosive mixtures with air.” “Hydrogen remains an expensive alternative, as its production and storage require specialized equipment, such as stainless-steel connectors and valves, increasing the total cost of the technology.” Interviewee 5 added, “The main disadvantage of hydrogen is the lack of infrastructure for its refueling, as the Brazilian road network lacks fueling stations, making adopting this technology a significant challenge.”

In summary, the disadvantages of hydrogen revolve around three main areas: the high costs associated with its production and infrastructure; technical challenges related to energy efficiency and safe handling; and structural limitations, such as the lack of widely developed distribution networks. While considerable, these barriers offer opportunities for technological and strategic advances that can mitigate these challenges, strengthening hydrogen’s role as a viable and sustainable alternative in the future of energy.

4.2. Difficulties in Application

While promising, the transition to a hydrogen-based economy faces several practical challenges that directly impact its viability in the short and medium term. The interviews highlight operational, regulatory, and structural issues that must be overcome for hydrogen to establish itself as a competitive and sustainable energy source.

Interviewee 1 noted that “the infrastructure for hydrogen distribution and supply is practically nonexistent in Brazil, requiring significant investment to enable its large-scale adoption.” Furthermore, he emphasized that “large-scale hydrogen production depends on robust investment and the availability of adequate infrastructure,” making the process expensive and inaccessible to several industries.

Interviewee 2 highlighted the difficulty in integrating hydrogen with conventional energy infrastructure, explaining that “hydrogen has distinct properties from fossil fuels and natural gas, which pose technical challenges. It is highly flammable and, due to its low density, requires very high pressures to be stored efficiently, requiring the use of robust and expensive tanks.” Furthermore, he highlighted that “market acceptance of hydrogen still faces barriers, especially due to the perception that its manipulation presents high risks.”

The lack of an efficient and scalable supply chain for green hydrogen was emphasized by Interviewee 3: “Brazil does not yet have an established hydrogen supply network, and the necessary equipment, such as compressors and storage systems, is not readily available.” … “The cost of producing green hydrogen is high compared to traditional fuels, such as ethanol and diesel, making its adoption more difficult in the short term.”

Interviewees 4 and 5 discussed the operational difficulties associated with using hydrogen in existing industrial processes. Interviewee 4 highlighted that “the main difficulty lies in creating a hydrogen supply network, requiring significant investments in pipelines and filling stations, which could be a major challenge in Brazil.” Interviewee 5 added: “Industrial investment is more focused on the development of electric vehicles, and the budget for hydrogen is still limited, hindering the advancement of the technology.” The challenges highlighted by the interviewees converge on three main points: the lack of a robust distribution and supply infrastructure, the technical and safety challenges related to hydrogen storage and transportation, and the lack of regulatory incentives and subsidies to drive its adoption. While these barriers are considerable, they also open space for developing innovative solutions and public policies promoting a more hydrogen-friendly environment.

4.3. Short and Long-Term Actions

Interviewee 1 noted that, over the next five years, the focus will be on developing prototypes and small-scale testing, especially for heavy-duty vehicles. “Small-series production of hydrogen-powered trucks and buses will be essential to validate the technology under real-world operating conditions.” He also emphasized the need for refueling infrastructure, stating that “the implementation of refueling stations and the creation of efficient hydrogen transportation logistics are fundamental steps for the technology’s viability.”

Interviewee 2 reinforced the need for government incentives and public–private partnerships to boost the sector. “The government needs to offer subsidies and tax benefits to make green hydrogen production viable and reduce initial implementation costs” … “The automotive and energy sectors need to work together to develop refueling infrastructure, especially in strategic logistics corridors.” Interviewee 3 emphasized that the viability of hydrogen in the short term depends on forming strategic partnerships and technology transfer from other sectors. “The aerospace sector already uses hydrogen as a fuel, and lessons learned from this area can be applied to the automotive sector to accelerate the development of viable solutions.”

Interviewees 4 and 5 reiterated that, in the short term, hydrogen will be used more in specific industrial processes, such as power generation for sectors that require sustainable sources. Interviewee 4 pointed out that “one of the most viable solutions for Brazil in the coming years will be the use of ethanol to extract hydrogen directly into vehicles, reducing the need for new fueling infrastructure.” Interviewee 5 added, “Brazil can benefit from its established ethanol production to gradually integrate hydrogen technology, without major changes to the road network.”

The short-term outlook for hydrogen indicates a gradual transition, emphasizing testing and applying the technology in strategic niches, such as heavy-duty transportation and industrial processes. The interviewees expect infrastructure expansion and cost reductions to occur progressively, enabling broader adoption as technological and economic challenges are overcome. Collaboration between the public and private sectors, combined with government incentives and technological innovations, will be essential to consolidate hydrogen as a viable and competitive alternative in the energy future.

Interviewee 1 predicted that, in the long term, hydrogen could become a leading source of renewable energy, with applications in various sectors, such as long-haul transportation and electricity generation. “The production of green hydrogen will be essential to replace fossil fuels and achieve a low-carbon economy.” He further emphasized the importance of refueling infrastructure, explaining that “it will be necessary to create a robust network of refueling stations and invest in local equipment to reduce dependence on imports.”

Interviewee 2 reinforced this view, noting that, in the long term, “hydrogen could become accessible in terms of cost and infrastructure, resulting in a disruptive shift in the global energy mix.” To this end, he emphasized that “the integration of hydrogen with ethanol could be an intermediate solution in Brazil, allowing for a gradual transition while the technology develops.”

Interviewee 3 emphasized that hydrogen could promote a more decentralized and sustainable energy system in the long term, especially with advances in production and storage methods. “Developing new electrolysis and fuel cell technologies will reduce production costs and increase hydrogen efficiency.” He states that “expanding the fueling infrastructure will be a determining factor in enabling large-scale hydrogen use.”

Interviewees 4 and 5 noted that, while the long term is promising, reliance on still-emerging technologies could slow large-scale adoption. Interviewee 4 mentioned that “the government will need to offer financial and fiscal incentives to accelerate infrastructure deployment and stimulate domestic hydrogen production.” He further emphasized that “the costs of hydrogen vehicles need to be reduced for the technology to become competitive with fossil fuels.” Interviewee 5 echoed this view, explaining that “in the long term, the ideal would be to have a fully sustainable hydrogen production and supply infrastructure, using renewable energy sources such as solar and wind.” He reinforced that “advances in fuel cells and the reduction of hydrogen production and storage costs will be key to making this vision a reality.”

The long-term outlook for hydrogen points to a scenario of profound transformation, with the possibility of establishing a renewable energy-based economy, where hydrogen plays a key role in various industries. Growing economic viability and technological innovation could make hydrogen a primary energy source within a few decades, driving a global energy revolution. However, this future depends on significant investment and an integrated infrastructure enabling large-scale production, transportation, and storage.

4.4. Alternatives to Hydrogen

While hydrogen is considered a promising solution for the energy transition, some alternatives also have the potential to contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These alternatives include established renewable technologies such as solar and wind power, innovations such as advanced biofuels, next-generation fuel cells, and even the development of new forms of energy storage. Evaluating these options is essential to ensuring a more diversified and resilient energy transition. Interviewee 1 emphasized that biofuels, especially those derived from renewable sources, represent a complementary alternative to hydrogen. He explained that “there is a return to the use of ethanol-powered engines, especially in the agricultural sector, due to the widespread availability of this fuel in Brazil.” Furthermore, he emphasized that “biomethane has great potential to replace diesel in heavy-duty applications, being produced from organic waste.”

Interviewee 2 highlighted the role of solid-state batteries, which, in the future, may offer greater efficiency and energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries. He noted that “solid-state batteries show promising potential to overcome challenges related to the range and recharge time of electric vehicles.” Furthermore, he emphasized that “combustible natural gas (VNG) remains a viable alternative in the short term, as it already has a consolidated infrastructure in Brazil.”

Interviewee 3 addressed the potential of next-generation nuclear energy, such as small modular reactors (SMRs), which could provide clean and stable energy for producing alternative fuels or for direct use in the power grid. He highlighted that “modular nuclear reactors could be a solution to ensure a reliable and sustainable energy supply, complementing the renewable energy matrix.” He also mentioned that “liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has also been explored as an alternative to diesel in heavy-duty vehicles, due to its higher energy density than VNG.”

Interviewees 4 and 5 emphasized the importance of hybrid solutions, combining technologies such as hydrogen and solar energy, or synthetic fuels, which allow for a smoother transition by leveraging existing infrastructure. Interviewee 4 explained, “Brazil can explore using ethanol reformers to generate hydrogen, reducing the need for new fueling infrastructure.” Interviewee 5 added, “One of the most viable solutions in the short term would be the integration of ethanol into hydrogen generation directly in vehicles, allowing for more efficient use of existing energy resources.”

Given these perspectives, hydrogen is a fundamental piece of the energy transition puzzle, but not the only one. The alternatives discussed by the interviewees highlight the need to adopt a diversified and integrated approach, exploring different technologies to meet varying energy and industrial demands. Combining efforts on other fronts will allow greater flexibility and adaptability to future changes and challenges in the global energy sector.

Table 1 identifies the main challenges and opportunities for hydrogen adoption in Brazil.

Table 1. Data normalization and quantification.

Category	Related Question	Information Obtained	Keywords	Quantified Data
Advantages of Hydrogen	What are the advantages of using hydrogen as energy?	Emissions reduction, sustainability, greater autonomy, technological innovation.	Sustainability, emissions, autonomy, innovation.	Sustainability (5 mentions), Emissions reduction (4 mentions), Autonomy (3 mentions), Technological innovation (2 mentions).
Disadvantages of Hydrogen	What are the challenges to implementing hydrogen?	Insufficient infrastructure, high costs, regulation, and market acceptance.	Infrastructure, costs, regulations.	Infrastructure (5 mentions), High cost (4 mentions), Regulation (3 mentions), Market acceptance (2 mentions).
Hydrogen Viability	How can we assess the feasibility of using hydrogen?	Need for public policies, subsidies, and investment in R&D.	Public policies, subsidies, innovation.	Public policies (4 mentions), Subsidies (3 mentions), Research and development (3 mentions).
Short Term—Implementation	What actions are needed in the short term?	Infrastructure construction, tax incentives, technical training, public–private partnerships.	Infrastructure, incentives, training.	Infrastructure construction (5 mentions), Tax incentives (4 mentions), Technical training (3 mentions), Public–private partnerships (2 mentions).
Long Term—Implementation	What actions are needed in the long term?	Infrastructure expansion, international regulations, technological advances, and cost reduction.	Infrastructure, regulations, technology.	Infrastructure expansion (5 mentions), International regulations (4 mentions), Technological advances (4 mentions), Cost reduction (3 mentions).
Alternatives to Hydrogen	What alternatives are being explored?	Biofuels, battery electrification, hybrid solutions.	Biofuels, electrification, hybrids.	Battery electrification (3 mentions), Biofuels (2 mentions), Hybrid solutions (1 mention).
Impacts of Hydrogen on the Sector	What are the benefits of hydrogen for the sector?	Emissions reduction, energy independence, competitiveness, innovation.	Emissions, energy, competitiveness, innovation.	Emissions reduction (4 mentions), Energy independence (3 mentions), competitiveness (2 mentions), Technological innovation (2 mentions).
Final Recommendations	General actions suggested by interviewees.	Alignment between government and industry, encouragement of academic research, and public awareness.	Alignment, research, awareness.	Government-industry alignment (4 mentions), Academic research (3 mentions), Public awareness (2 mentions).

5. Discussion

Theoretically, the results corroborate the challenges already widely discussed in the literature, especially regarding the high costs of hydrogen production, storage, and distribution, technological limitations, and the need for infrastructure advances, as highlighted by authors [2,5,15]. However, the interviewees also offered insights that expand the academic debate by highlighting the importance of alternative routes, such as hydrogen production from ethanol, an approach that has emerged as a differentiator in the Brazilian context and is little explored in the international literature.

This path becomes especially relevant considering that ethanol is a well-established source in Brazil’s energy matrix, with a structured, sustainable, and widely used production chain. Furthermore, the ethanol life cycle significantly reduces carbon emissions, aligning with sustainability goals and carbon quota requirements. Ethanol as a source for hydrogen production not only leverages the country’s existing infrastructure but also positions Brazil strategically on the global stage by developing a virtually unique technological path that combines economic viability, energy security, and environmental benefits.

In practical terms, perceptions reinforce that, despite the technical challenges, the implementation of hydrogen is strongly dependent on the joint action of governments, companies, and research institutions. Factors such as inadequate infrastructure, regulatory barriers, high costs, and a shortage of specialized labor were highlighted as obstacles to large-scale adoption, aligning with the challenges in the literature. On the other hand, practical solutions were highlighted by the interviewees, such as the development of pilot projects, the prioritization of specific niches—such as commercial fleets and isolated industries—and the need for economic incentives through subsidies and public–private partnerships. From a social perspective, the results reinforce hydrogen’s potential as a strategic vector for promoting decarbonization and improving quality of life. The potential for significantly reducing carbon emissions and a reduced dependence on fossil fuels directly benefits society, mitigating climate change’s effects and improving energy security. Furthermore, the interviewees emphasize that adopting this technology can boost the creation of skilled jobs, foster national technological innovation, and promote a structural transformation in the energy sector, positively impacting the economy and the environment.

Among the advantages of hydrogen, the interviewees highlighted its significant contribution to reducing carbon emissions and its versatility in industrial and transportation applications. While Interviewees 1 and 3 highlighted its potential as a clean energy source in difficult-to-decarbonize sectors, such as heavy-duty transportation and the chemical industry, Interviewees 2, 4, and 5 emphasized the energy independence hydrogen provides, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and strengthening energy security. These insights indicate that hydrogen is widely recognized as a key element in the energy transition and tackling climate change.

However, interviewees also identified significant limitations of hydrogen. Interviewees 1 and 2 highlighted the high production, storage, and distribution costs as significant obstacles to large-scale adoption. Interviewees 3 and 4 mentioned the lack of specific infrastructure, such as transportation networks and refueling stations. In contrast, Interviewee 5 highlighted challenges related to energy efficiency due to losses in the production and conversion processes. These aspects highlight the need for technological innovations and investments to overcome existing barriers.

The difficulties in implementing hydrogen are intrinsically linked to these disadvantages. Interviewees 1 and 3 discussed regulatory barriers and the lack of international standardization as obstacles to its global adoption. Interviewees 2 and 4, in turn, emphasized the logistical challenges, especially in the safe and efficient storage and transportation of hydrogen. In contrast, Interviewee 5 highlighted the need for professional training to operate the associated technologies. These factors reinforce the importance of comprehensive planning and collaboration between the public and private sectors. In the short term, expectations are cautious. Interviewees 1 and 2 suggested that hydrogen use will be limited to specific niches, such as commercial fleets and isolated industries, over the next five years. Interviewees 3 and 5 highlighted the importance of government subsidies and public–private partnerships to facilitate pilot projects and encourage the creation of initial infrastructure. Interviewee 4 reinforced the need to demonstrate hydrogen’s economic and environmental benefits to attract investors and strengthen market confidence. Therefore, strategic initiatives, albeit limited, should mark this period.

Long-term prospects, on the other hand, are promising. Interviewees 1 and 3 envisioned hydrogen replacing fossil fuels in sectors such as shipping and aviation within 20 to 30 years. Interviewees 2 and 5 pointed out that technological advances and large-scale production should significantly reduce costs. In contrast, Interviewee 4 highlighted the role of global policies and international collaboration in the sustainable development of this market. These visions suggest a future in which hydrogen will play a central role in the worldwide energy mix.

Furthermore, the interviewees presented complementary alternatives to hydrogen, such as biofuels and electrification. Interviewees 1 and 2 highlighted biofuels as transitional solutions in applications where hydrogen is not yet viable. Interviewees 3 and 4 highlighted the growth of electrification, especially in light-duty vehicles, as a direct competitor. Interviewee 5 proposed combining different technologies to meet energy demands in a diversified manner. This approach emphasizes the complexity of the energy transition and the need for a comprehensive technology portfolio.

In conclusion, the survey of the interviewees’ perceptions provided a broad and detailed overview of the advantages, disadvantages, challenges, and prospects of hydrogen use. It highlighted technological alternatives that enrich the debate. The results reinforce the importance of collaborative initiatives, consistent policies, and strategic investments to consolidate hydrogen as an essential pillar in the global energy transition, with significant contributions to advancing academic knowledge, the practical development of the sector, and the socio-environmental benefits for society.

Connections Between Interviews and Literature

Table 2 summarizes the main points raised by the interviewees, including advantages, disadvantages, challenges, short- and long-term actions, and alternatives to hydrogen, and links them to the researchers who have developed studies on these topics. This cross-referencing allows us to determine which aspects of the energy transition already have a solid foundation in the literature and which still require further exploration and applicable solutions.

Table 2. Connections between interviews and theoretical frameworks.

Category	Interviewee 1	Interviewee 2	Interviewee 3	Interviewee 4	Interviewee 5	Authors
Advantages of Hydrogen	Hydrogen is a promising solution for heavy-duty vehicles due to its high energy density and zero CO2 emissions.	Hydrogen can significantly reduce emissions in the heavy-duty transportation sector, contributing to the energy transition.	Hydrogen has the potential to complement electrification in long-distance applications.	Fuel cells offer greater autonomy than electric batteries for certain segments.	The availability of multiple production methods (ethanol, ammonia) favors its viability in different markets.	[2,8,20]
Disadvantages of Hydrogen	The high cost of fuel cells is a barrier to large-scale adoption.	Refueling infrastructure is still limited and requires significant investment.	In some applications, hydrogen’s energy efficiency is lower than that of electric batteries.	High-pressure hydrogen storage requires safe and affordable solutions.	Refueling time is shorter than that of batteries, but logistics optimization is still necessary.	[29,30,31,32,47]
Implementation Challenges	Green hydrogen production remains expensive.	Brazil does not have a consolidated hydrogen energy policy.	Market acceptance depends on financial incentives and clearer regulations.	Integrating hydrogen into the electricity grid is a challenge to be overcome.	Investments in research and development are essential to reduce costs.	[24,37,38,39,40]
Short-Term Actions	Expansion of fueling infrastructure and tax incentives for green hydrogen.	Partnerships between automakers and the public sector to accelerate fleet testing.	Development of regulations to standardize fuel cell technology.	Creating incentive policies for research and development.	Initial adoption in specific sectors, such as mining and freight transportation.	[44]
Long-Term Actions	on an industrial scale.	Development of more efficient storage technologies.	Progressive reduction in the cost of fuel cells.	Implementing robust infrastructure for global supply.	Fostering research into new hydrogen sources and emerging technologies.	[1]
Alternatives to Hydrogen	Using biofuels and partial electrification is still a viable option for specific sectors.	Methanol and ammonia may be viable alternatives for decentralized hydrogen production.	The combination of batteries and hydrogen can optimize the efficiency of transportation systems.	Carbon capture and storage technologies can reduce emissions from conventional processes.	Diversification of the energy matrix must consider other renewable options.	[2]

From a theoretical perspective, the interviews corroborate previous studies on energy density, hydrogen versatility, and structural and economic bottlenecks [2,5]. However, they make a unique contribution by highlighting the importance of integration with other sources (such as ethanol and biofuels) and adaptive strategies specific to the Brazilian context, which are still little explored in the international literature.

From a practical perspective, the data reveals the strategic role of automakers and energy sector companies in enabling the hydrogen supply chain. This practical perspective reinforces the need for coordinated actions and investments in public policies and infrastructure, expanding the applicability of academic studies to the reality of the Brazilian automotive industry. Regarding social impact, the transition to hydrogen is seen as a concrete opportunity to reduce emissions and improve air quality, positively affecting public health and energy security. Recognizing these dimensions broadens the scope of research, connecting technological advances to broader societal benefits.

Thus, by integrating academic and market perspectives, this section reinforces the coherence of research findings and contributes to a broader view of the viability of hydrogen in the automotive sector. Furthermore, this comparative analysis helps identify gaps to be explored theoretically and in the practical implementation of the technology.

A comparative analysis of the interview results and the literature provided a detailed overview of the hydrogen energy transition in the automotive sector. It was identified that, although significant advances have been made in research and development, structural and economic barriers still pose substantial challenges to large-scale implementation.

The intersection of theory and practice demonstrated a consensus on hydrogen’s potential to decarbonize heavy-duty transportation. However, the viability of this transition depends on factors such as cost reductions, government incentives, and infrastructure development. Based on these analyses, the following section delves deeper into the feasibility of hydrogen, addressing the key factors influencing its implementation and the strategies that can enable its adoption in the automotive sector.

In summary, while considerable interest and ongoing efforts exist, the widespread adoption of hydrogen in Brazil’s trucking industry faces substantial hurdles related to cost, infrastructure, and technology maturity. The study provides a framework for understanding these challenges. It outlines strategic actions and partnerships for a successful energy transition, emphasizing hydrogen’s critical role in achieving sustainable and low-carbon mobility.

6. Final Remarks

Thej article investigated the viability of hydrogen as an energy alternative for trucks in Brazil, in addition to analyzing complementary technologies such as direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) and hydrogen production from ammonia and ethanol. Using an exploratory qualitative approach, interviews were conducted with development engineers, engineering managers from heavy-duty vehicle manufacturers, and researchers specializing in hydrogen technologies, seeking to understand the main challenges, opportunities, and trends associated with adopting this technology in the sector.

The results allow us to conclude that, despite growing interest in using hydrogen as an energy carrier, its large-scale adoption still faces significant barriers, such as high production costs, limited fueling infrastructure, and more robust regulatory incentives. The complementary technologies analyzed, such as DMFCs and hydrogen production from ammonia and ethanol, were also recognized by experts as promising solutions, particularly in the Brazilian context, due to their advantages related to energy density, storage security, and the possibility of utilizing the country’s renewable energy matrix. However, despite the advances, these alternatives still require technological evolution and more viable economic models to ensure their competitiveness.

From a theoretical perspective, this work contributes to advancing knowledge by filling a gap in the national literature on the application of hydrogen in heavy-duty transportation. The cross-referencing of empirical results with existing academic studies confirms already established discussions, especially regarding technological and economic challenges, and expands the debate by including the potential of hydrogen production routes from ethanol, an approach little explored internationally but highly relevant to the Brazilian context.

The data obtained from interviews with industry specialists can be directly used in several real-life contexts. First, they provide actionable insights for policymakers and regulators, especially regarding the design of incentives, subsidies, and infrastructure investments required to accelerate hydrogen adoption in heavy transport. Second, the findings are relevant for automotive manufacturers and suppliers, highlighting technological bottlenecks and opportunities for partnerships and pilot projects to guide R&D and commercialization strategies. Third, the results inform energy companies and logistics operators by indicating the conditions under which hydrogen can become a viable alternative to diesel, supporting strategic planning for fleet transitions and supply chain adaptations. Finally, the data can be used to design public awareness and workforce training programs at a broader societal level, fostering acceptance of hydrogen technologies and preparing qualified professionals for the emerging green mobility sector.

It is important to recognize that this research has limitations, particularly related to limited access to quantitative data on implementing these technologies in Brazil and the concentration of the sample on a specific group of automakers and experts. Furthermore, the research did not delve into detailed economic analyses or develop financial models to assess the economic viability of adopting hydrogen in the national automotive sector.

Given these limitations, future research could build on these findings by incorporating statistical or mixed-methods analyses to test and expand the patterns identified here. Overall, the conclusion is that, although there are still technical, financial, and regulatory challenges to be overcome, hydrogen and its complementary technologies are consolidating themselves as a promising and strategic alternative for the decarbonization of heavy-duty transportation in Brazil. However, this transition’s viability depends on consistent investment, technological advances, infrastructure development, and collaboration between governments, industry, and research institutions. These measures will consolidate hydrogen as a sustainable, economically viable, and socially beneficial energy solution, effectively contributing to future mobility and a low-carbon economy.