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Chemosensors
Volume 13
Issue 7
10.3390/chemosensors13070253
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Review

Analytical Approaches Using GC-MS for the Detection of Pollutants in Wastewater Towards Environmental and Human Health Benefits: A Comprehensive Review

by
Gonçalo Catarro
1,2,
Rodrigo Pelixo
1,2,
Mariana Feijó
3,
Tiago Rosado
1,2,4,
Sílvia Socorro
1,
André R. T. S. Araújo
4,5,6,* and
Eugenia Gallardo
1,2,4,*
1
RISE-Health, Departamento de Ciências Médicas, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
2
Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, EM506, 6200-000 Covilhã, Portugal
3
RISE-Health, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
4
Centro Académico Clínico das Beiras (CACB), Grupo de Problemas Relacionados com Toxicofilias, 6200-000 Covilhã, Portugal
5
BRIDGES, Investigação Biotecnológica para a Inovação e Design de Produtos de Saúde, Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Avenida Dr. Francisco Sá Carneiro, n.º 50, 6300-559 Guarda, Portugal
6
LAQV/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Química Aplicada, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, No. 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Chemosensors 2025, 13(7), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070253 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 10 May 2025 / Revised: 27 June 2025 / Accepted: 10 July 2025 / Published: 12 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue GC, MS and GC-MS Analytical Methods: Opportunities and Challenges (Third Edition))
Versions Notes

Abstract

The analysis of wastewater is essential in environmental chemistry, particularly for monitoring emerging contaminants and assessing ecological impacts. In this context, hyphenated chromatographic techniques are widely used, with liquid chromatography being one of the most common. However, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) remains a valuable tool in this field due to its sensitivity, selectivity, and widespread availability in most laboratories. This review examines the application of validated methods for wastewater analysis using GC-MS (MS), highlighting its relevance in identifying micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals, drugs of abuse, pesticides, hormones, and industrial by-products. The validation of analytical methods is crucial to ensuring the reliability and reproducibility of data and the accurate monitoring of contaminants. Key parameters, including sample volume, recovery efficiency, and detection and quantification limits, are discussed, evaluating different approaches to optimising the identification of different classes of contaminants. Additionally, this study explores advances in sample preparation techniques, such as solid-phase microextraction (SPME), dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME), and solid-phase extraction (SPE), which enhance efficiency and minimise interferences in the analysis. Finally, future perspectives are discussed, including the integration of emerging technologies such as high-resolution mass spectrometry, the miniaturisation of GC systems, and the development of faster and more sustainable analytical methods.
Keywords: gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry; wastewater analysis; pollutants; environmental monitoring gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry; wastewater analysis; pollutants; environmental monitoring

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MDPI and ACS Style

Catarro, G.; Pelixo, R.; Feijó, M.; Rosado, T.; Socorro, S.; Araújo, A.R.T.S.; Gallardo, E. Analytical Approaches Using GC-MS for the Detection of Pollutants in Wastewater Towards Environmental and Human Health Benefits: A Comprehensive Review. Chemosensors 2025, 13, 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070253

AMA Style

Catarro G, Pelixo R, Feijó M, Rosado T, Socorro S, Araújo ARTS, Gallardo E. Analytical Approaches Using GC-MS for the Detection of Pollutants in Wastewater Towards Environmental and Human Health Benefits: A Comprehensive Review. Chemosensors. 2025; 13(7):253. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070253

Chicago/Turabian Style

Catarro, Gonçalo, Rodrigo Pelixo, Mariana Feijó, Tiago Rosado, Sílvia Socorro, André R. T. S. Araújo, and Eugenia Gallardo. 2025. "Analytical Approaches Using GC-MS for the Detection of Pollutants in Wastewater Towards Environmental and Human Health Benefits: A Comprehensive Review" Chemosensors 13, no. 7: 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070253

APA Style

Catarro, G., Pelixo, R., Feijó, M., Rosado, T., Socorro, S., Araújo, A. R. T. S., & Gallardo, E. (2025). Analytical Approaches Using GC-MS for the Detection of Pollutants in Wastewater Towards Environmental and Human Health Benefits: A Comprehensive Review. Chemosensors, 13(7), 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070253

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