Time Perspective and Perceived Social Isolation: The Role of Social Interaction Anxiety
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling and Procedure
2.2. Scales and Measures
2.2.1. Time Perspective
2.2.2. Perceived Social Isolation
2.2.3. Social Interaction Anxiety
2.2.4. Infrequency Scale
3. Results
3.1. Data Cleaning and Descriptive Analyses
3.2. Inferential Analyses
3.3. Path Analysis Model
4. Discussion
4.1. Time Perspectives and Perceived Social Isolation
4.2. The Role of Social Interaction Anxiety
4.3. Practical Implications: Time Perspective Therapy
4.4. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Zimbardo, P.G.; Boyd, J.N. Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. In Time Perspective Theory; Review, Research and Application: Essays in Honor of Philip G. Zimbardo; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2014; pp. 17–55. [Google Scholar]
- Gupta, R.; Hershey, D.A.; Gaur, J. Time perspective and procrastination in the workplace: An empirical investigation. Curr. Psychol. 2012, 31, 195–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kooij, D.T.; Kanfer, R.; Betts, M.; Rudolph, C.W. Future time perspective: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Appl. Psychol. 2018, 103, 867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baird, H.M.; Webb, T.L.; Sirois, F.M.; Gibson-Miller, J. Understanding the effects of time perspective: A meta-analysis testing a self-regulatory framework. Psychol. Bull. 2021, 147, 233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Keough, K.A.; Zimbardo, P.G.; Boyd, J.N. Who’s smoking, drinking, and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use. Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. 1999, 21, 149–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chavarria, J.; Allan, N.P.; Moltisanti, A.; Taylor, J. The effects of present hedonistic time perspective and past negative time perspective on substance use consequences. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015, 152, 39–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jochemczyk, Ł.; Pietrzak, J.; Buczkowski, R.; Stolarski, M.; Markiewicz, Ł. You only live once: Present-hedonistic time perspective predicts risk propensity. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2017, 115, 148–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Witowska, J.; Zajenkowski, M. How is perception of time associated with cognitive functioning? The relationship between time perspective and executive control. Time Soc. 2019, 28, 1124–1147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawthorne, G. Measuring social isolation in older adults: Development and initial validation of the friendship scale. Soc. Indic. Res. 2006, 77, 521–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawthorne, G. Perceived social isolation in a community sample: Its prevalence and correlates with aspects of peoples’ lives. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2008, 43, 140–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawkley, L.C.; Cacioppo, J.T. Loneliness and pathways to disease. Brain Behav. Immun. 2003, 17, 98–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carstensen, L.L. Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychol. Aging 1992, 7, 331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Jong-Gierveld, J.; van Tilburg, T.G.; Dykstra, P.A. Loneliness and social isolation. In The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2006; pp. 485–500. [Google Scholar]
- Cacioppo, J.T.; Hawkley, L.C.; Crawford, L.E.; Ernst, J.M.; Burleson, M.H.; Kowalewski, R.B.; Berntson, G.G. Loneliness and health: Potential mechanisms. Psychosom. Med. 2002, 64, 407–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawkley, L.C.; Thisted, R.A.; Masi, C.M.; Cacioppo, J.T. Loneliness predicts increased blood pressure: 5-year cross-lagged analyses in middle-aged and older adults. Psychol. Aging 2010, 25, 132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Holt-Lunstad, J.; Smith, T.B.; Layton, J.B. Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Med. 2010, 7, e1000316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dąbrowska, A.; Marek-Banach, J.; Zimbardo, P.; Łopatkiewicz, A.; Wysocka, E. Time perspective and experience of depression, stress, and loneliness among adolescents in youth educational centres. Przegląd Badań Eduk. (Educ. Stud. Rev.) 2022, 1, 91–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hedayat, S.; Basharpour, S.; Soure, J. The role of time perspective and pain experience in loneliness of the elderly. Aging 2019, 5, 53–64. [Google Scholar]
- Nowakowska, I. Lonely and thinking about the past: The role of time perspectives, Big Five traits and perceived social support in loneliness of young adults during COVID-19 social distancing. Curr. Issues Personal. Psychol. 2020, 8, 175–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peters, L.; Sunderland, M.; Andrews, G.; Rapee, R.M.; Mattick, R.P. Development of a short form Social Interaction Anxiety (SIAS) and Social Phobia Scale (SPS) using nonparametric item response theory: The SIAS-6 and the SPS-6. Psychol. Assess. 2012, 24, 66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maes, M.; Nelemans, S.A.; Danneel, S.; Fernandez-Castilla, B.; Van den Noortgate, W.; Goossens, L.; Vanhalst, J. Loneliness and social anxiety across childhood and adolescence: Multilevel meta-analyses of cross-sectional and longitudinal associations. Dev. Psychol. 2019, 55, 1548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teo, A.R.; Lerrigo, R.; Rogers, M.A.M. The role of social isolation in social anxiety disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Anxiety Disord. 2013, 27, 353–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cacioppo, J.T.; Cacioppo, S. Loneliness in the modern age: An evolutionary theory of loneliness (ETL). In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; Volume 58, pp. 127–197. [Google Scholar]
- Altan-Atalay, A.; Özarslan, I.; Biriz, B. Negative urgency and time perspective: Interactive associations with anxiety and depression. J. Gen. Psychol. 2020, 147, 293–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Papastamatelou, J.; Unger, A.; Giotakos, O.; Athanasiadou, F. Is time perspective a predictor of anxiety and perceived stress? Some preliminary results from Greece. Psychol. Stud. 2015, 60, 468–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Åström, E.; Seif, A.; Wiberg, B.; Carelli, M.G. Getting ‘stuck’ in the future or the past: Relationships between dimensions of time perspective, executive functions, and repetitive negative thinking in anxiety. Psychopathology 2019, 51, 362–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anagnostopoulos, F.; Griva, F. Exploring time perspective in Greek young adults: Validation of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and relationships with mental health indicators. Soc. Indic. Res. 2012, 106, 41–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chan, S.M.; Kwok, W.W.; Fung, T.W. Psychometric properties of the Zimbardo time perspective inventory in Hong Kong adolescents. Time Soc. 2019, 28, 33–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lynam, D.R.; Gaughan, E.T.; Miller, J.D.; Miller, D.J.; Mullins-Sweatt, S.; Widiger, T.A. Assessing the basic traits associated with psychopathy: Development and validation of the Elemental Psychopathy Assessment. Psychol. Assess. 2011, 23, 108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahn, J. Beyond single equation regression analysis: Path analysis and multi-stage regression analysis. Am. J. Pharm. Educ. 2002, 66, 37–41. [Google Scholar]
- Streiner, D.L. Finding our way: An introduction to path analysis. Can. J. Psychiatry 2005, 50, 115–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, T.A. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Bergman, Y.S.; Segel-Karpas, D. Future time perspective, loneliness, and depressive symptoms among middle-aged adults: A mediation model. J. Affect. Disord. 2018, 241, 173–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernstein, M.J.; Benfield, J.A. Past perspective is related to present relationships: Past-positive and negative time perspectives differentially predict rejection sensitivity. Psychol. Rec. 2013, 63, 615–627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bandura, A. Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Appl. Psychol. 2002, 51, 269–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olfson, M.; Guardino, M.; Struening, E.; Schneier, F.R.; Hellman, F.; Klein, D.F. Barriers to the treatment of social anxiety. Am. J. Psychiatry 2000, 157, 521–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Henriksen, J.; Larsen, E.; Mattisson, C.; Andersson, N. Loneliness, health and mortality. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 2019, 28, 234–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masi, C.M.; Chen, H.-Y.; Hawkley, L.C.; Cacioppo, J.T. A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 15, 219–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bados, A.; Balaguer, G.; Saldaña, C. The efficacy of cognitive–behavioral therapy and the problem of drop-out. J. Clin. Psychol. 2007, 63, 585–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernandez, E.; Salem, D.; Swift, J.K.; Ramtahal, N. Meta-analysis of dropout from cognitive behavioral therapy: Magnitude, timing, and moderators. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2015, 83, 1108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sword, R.M.; Sword, R.K.; Brunskill, S.R.; Zimbardo, P.G. Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. J. Loss Trauma 2014, 19, 197–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mirzania, A.; Firoozi, M.; Saberi, A. The efficacy of time perspective therapy in reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress, anxiety, and depression in females with breast Cancer. Int. J. Cancer Manag. 2021, 14, e112915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esmaili, V.; Ariapooran, S.; Amiri, H. Effectiveness of Emotion Regulation and Time Perspective Therapies on Depression and Co-rumination in Adolescent Students During the COVID-19 Outbreak. Res. Teach. 2022, 10, 58–81. [Google Scholar]
- Oyanadel, C.; Carrasco-Correa, H.; Latorre-Nanjarí, J.; Peñate-Castro, W.; Sepúlveda-Queipul, C. Reducing suicidal ideation in adolescents with time perspective therapy. An experimental study. Acta Colomb. Psicol. 2021, 24, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Perceived social isolation | -- | ||||||
2. Social interaction anxiety | 0.54 ** | -- | |||||
3. Past-positive | −0.47 ** | −0.27 ** | -- | ||||
4. Past-negative | 0.36 ** | 0.34 ** | −0.31 ** | -- | |||
5. Future-oriented | −0.18 ** | −0.06 * | 0.19 ** | −0.06 * | -- | ||
6. Present-fatalistic | 0.08 ** | 0.11 * | −0.03 | 0.13 ** | −0.07 ** | -- | |
7. Present-hedonistic | −0.20 ** | −0.17 ** | 0.18 ** | 0.06 ** | 0.00 | 0.12 ** | -- |
Mean: | 13.16 | 4.12 | 3.50 | 2.99 | 3.45 | 2.45 | 3.16 |
Standard Deviation: | 4.57 | 3.98 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 0.87 | 0.84 | 0.83 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Stout, M.E.; Medlin, A.R.; Gupta, R.; Tsotsoros, C.E. Time Perspective and Perceived Social Isolation: The Role of Social Interaction Anxiety. Healthcare 2024, 12, 1736. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12171736
Stout ME, Medlin AR, Gupta R, Tsotsoros CE. Time Perspective and Perceived Social Isolation: The Role of Social Interaction Anxiety. Healthcare. 2024; 12(17):1736. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12171736
Chicago/Turabian StyleStout, Madison E., Austin R. Medlin, Ritu Gupta, and Cindy E. Tsotsoros. 2024. "Time Perspective and Perceived Social Isolation: The Role of Social Interaction Anxiety" Healthcare 12, no. 17: 1736. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12171736
APA StyleStout, M. E., Medlin, A. R., Gupta, R., & Tsotsoros, C. E. (2024). Time Perspective and Perceived Social Isolation: The Role of Social Interaction Anxiety. Healthcare, 12(17), 1736. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12171736