An Eye Tracker Study on the Understanding of Implicitness in French Elementary School Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Presuppositions, which are characterized by the fact that they are anchored in the literal meaning by being carried by a lexical trigger. For example, it is because the speaker uses the verb “finish” in (1a) that the addressee makes the inference (1b). As one can finish only what was started before, “finish” lexically presupposes “having started”:
- (1)
- a. Alexander has still not finished painting the walls.b. Alexandre had already started painting the walls.
- Conversational implicatures, which are non-logical inferences we make out of habit. Unlike presuppositions, they are not triggered by particular linguistic forms, but by taking into account the Gricean principle of cooperation and conversational maxims which regulate conversation in their rational use [3]. Therefore, it is because the addressee knows from his knowledge of the world how a body reacts when someone is car sick and has to drive for two hours on bumpy roads, that he will deduce (2a):
- (2)
- a. Raphaël suffers from carsickness. He has to drive for two hours on small bumpy roads to go shopping.b. He might throw up.
- Irony is a type of implicitness in which the reader must recognize a form of discordance by the narrator between what is said and what is actually meant [4]. By considering the context, the reader infers that the ironic sentence means the opposite of its literal meaning:
- (3)
- a. Alice wants to help her mother carry her shopping. She takes a packet of tissues. Her mother says to her:b. How strong you are!
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Linguistic Materials
2.3. Eye Movement Recordings
2.4. Procedure
2.5. Data Analysis
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Practical Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Conditions | Type | Common Context | Target Sentence and Triggers | Question with the Correct Answer |
Presupposition | Definite description | Amber wants to help her mother carry her shopping. | She takes a packet of tissues and the toothpaste. | In your opinion, were there several toothpastes? No |
Implicature | Quantitative | Amber wants to help her mother carry her shopping. | She takes a packet of tissues and the toothpaste. | In your opinion, did Amber only take the packet of tissues and the toothpaste? Yes |
Irony | Antithetical | Amber wants to help her mother carry her shopping. | She takes a packet of tissues. Her mother says to her: “How strong you are” | In your opinion, does the mother think that Alice is strong? No |
Presupposition | Aspectual adverb | Florence usually arrives late for her appointments. When invited to have dinner with friends, she arrives two hours late and explains that she has had a problem. | She wanted to catch the 8h05 train, but it was canceled again. | In your opinion, is it the first time that the 8.05 p.m. train is cancelled? No |
Implicature | Quantitative | Florence usually arrives late for her appointements. When invited to have dinner with friends, she arrives two hours late and explains that she had a problem. | She’s not usually that late. | In your opinion, has she ever arrived this late before? Yes |
Irony | Antithetical | Florence usually arrives late for her appointments. When invited to have dinner with friends, she arrives two hours late and explains that she has had a problem. | Someone says: “How surprising!” | In your opinion, is this person very surprised? No |
Presupposition | Aspectual verb | Tom does not like school. He has a lot of bad grades. This weekend, his parents have to sign his exercise book. | They are pleased because Tom continues to make progress in arithmetics. | In your opinion, is this the first time that Tom makes progress in arithmetics? No |
Implicature | Scalar | Tom does not like school. He has a lot of bad grades. This weekend, his parents have to sign his exercise book. | They are pleased because Tom got two exercises right. | In your opinion, has he failed all the other exercises? Yes |
Irony | Antithetical | Tom does not like school. He has a lot of bad grades. This weekend, his parents have to sign his exercise book. | His father says “so, still top of the class, are you?” | In your opinion, does Tom’s father think his son is top of the class? No |
Presupposition | Aspectual adverb | Lily does not like wearing trendy clothes. She prefers wearing large sweaters and old trainers. | She never wears skirts or dresses any more. | In your opinion, has Lily ever worn skirts or dresses? Yes |
Implicature | Scalar | Lily does not like wearing trendy clothes. She prefers wearing large sweaters and old trainers. | She wears most of her cousin’s cast-offs. | In your opinion, are there any of her cousin’s clothes that Lily isn’t getting back? Yes |
Irony | Antithetical | Lily does not like wearing trendy clothes. She prefers wearing large sweaters and old trainers. | Her brother says to her: “Wow, you dress like a princess!” | In your opinion, does her brother think that Lily dresses like a princess? No |
Presupposition | Factive verb | Oliver suffers from carsickness. He has to drive for two hours on small bumpy roads to go shopping. | He regrets living so far from the town. | In your opinion, does he live close to a town? No |
Implicature | Scalar | Oliver suffers from carsickness. He has to drive for two hours on small bumpy roads to go shopping. | He might throw up. | In your opinion, it is certain that he will throw up? No |
Irony | Antithetical | Oliver suffers from carsickness. He has to drive for two hours on small bumpy roads to go shopping. | He says “What a lucky guy I am!” | In your opinion, is Oliver cross about taking the car? Yes |
Presupposition | Implicative verb | Lea comes home after a tennis tournament. She is very hungry; she looks at what is on the table and says: | Thank you Mummy, but I don’t think I’ll manage to eat the six sausages. | In your opinion, is Lea going to try to eat the six sausages? Yes |
Implicature | Scalar | Lea comes home after a tennis tournament. She is very hungry; she looks at what is on the table and says: | Thank you Mummy, but six sausages are a bit much! | Do you think there are more than six sausages on the table? No |
Irony | Antithetical | Lea comes home after a tennis tournament. She is very hungry; she looks at what is on the table and says: | Great, Mummy has made my favorite dish: burnt nuggets! | In your opinion, does Léa love burnt nuggets? No |
Presupposition | Aspectual adverb | Max and Harry go to a restaurant. On the menu, there is chocolate mousse and strawberry tarts, but Harry wants a strawberry mousse. | He loves mousses but has discovered that he is allergic to chocolate and he mustn’t eat chocolate any more. | In your opinion, has Harry ever eaten chocolate before? Yes |
Implicature | Scalar | Max and Leo go to a restaurant. On the menu, there is chocolate mousse and strawberry tarts, but Leo wants a strawberry mousse. | Max tries to explain to him that this will not be possible. | Do you think Leo will understand? No |
Irony | Antithetical | Max and Leo go to a restaurant. On the menu, there is chocolate mousse and strawberry tarts, but Leo wants a strawberry mousse. | Max says to him: “You’re such an uncomplicated guy.” | In your opinion, does Max think Leo is complicated? Yes |
Presupposition | Factive connector | Sonny wants to play cards. He asks Victoria to play with him. She says that she prefers playing all by herself. | But since it is Sonny’s birthday, she agrees for once. | In your opinion, is it Sonny’s birthday today? Yes |
Implicature | Scalar | Sonny wants to play cards. He asks Victoria to play with him. She says that she prefers playing all by herself. | But since it is Sonny’s birthday, she agrees for once. | In your opinion, does Victoria generally refuse to play with Sonny? Yes |
Irony | Antithetical | Sonny wants to play cards. He asks Victoria to play with him. She says that she prefers playing all by herself. | Sonny says; “That’s nice of you” | In your opinion, does Sonny think that Victoria is not nice with him? Yes |
Presupposition | Aspectual adverb | Daniel and his family are going to the seaside. While getting off the train, Daniel falls and breaks his arm. | He will have to postpone his sailing camp again. | In your opinion, had Daniel already postponed his sailing camp in the past? Yes |
Implicature | Scalar | Daniel and his family are going to the seaside. While getting off the train, Daniel falls and breaks his arm. | It will be painful for a while but not for very long. | In your opinion, will this be very painful for Lucas? No |
Irony | Antithetical | Daniel and his family are going to the seaside. While getting off the train, Daniel falls and breaks his arm. | His father says: “You’re going to have a fun week!” | In your opinion, does his father think that Daniel is going to be bored this week? Yes |
Presupposition | Factive verb | Diana and Luke are on a hike. At the campsite in the evening, Diana realises that she has lost the bag with the food and that there is only a packet of dried soup left. | And also, she does not know that Luke hates soup. | In your opinion, does Luke like soup? No |
Implicature | Clausal | Diana and Luke are on a hike. At the campsite in the evening, Diana realises that she has lost the bag with the food and that there is only a packet of dried soup left. | If Luke hates soup, he will be very disappointed. | In your opinion, are we sure that Luke hates soup? No |
Irony | Antithetical | Diana and Luke are on a hike. At the campsite in the evening, Diana realises that she has lost the bag with the food and that there is only a packet of dried soup left. | Luke says: I see we’re in for a feast this evening. | In your opinion, does Luke think that they are in for a feast? No |
Presupposition | Aspectual verb | Alexander has bought a big house in the country. There is a lot of work to do on it. | He has still not finished painting the walls. | In your opinion, has he started painting the house? Yes |
Implicature | Aspectual verb | Alexander has bought a big house in the country. There is a lot of work to do on it. | A week ago, he started painting the walls | In your opinion, has he finished painting the walls? No |
Irony | Antithetical | Alexander has bought a big house in the country. There is a lot of work to do on it. | Seeing how clumsy he is, it will be quick work. | In your opinion, will the works on the house take a long time? Yes |
Presupposition | Factive verb | Martin hates his aunt who is always very mean and very harsh towards him. This year, Martin’s parents tell him that his aunt won’t be able to come for Christmas. | He is very pleased because he thinks that his aunt will give him a Christmas present anyway. | In your opinion, will Martin receive a present from his aunt this year? No |
Implicature | Quantitative | Martin hates his aunt who is always very mean and very harsh towards him. This year, Martin’s parents tell him that his aunt won’t be able to come for Christmas. | She has broken her leg. | In your opinion, did Martin’s aunt only break her leg? Yes |
Irony | Antithetical | Martin hates his aunt who is always very mean and very harsh towards him. This year, Martin’s parents tell him that his aunt will not be able to come for Christmas. | Martin says: “oh, what a pity!” | In your opinion, is Martin pleased? Yes |
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Number of Children Tested | Age (Years) | ELFE Test (N Words Read/min) | |
---|---|---|---|
First grade | 33 | 6.8 ± 0.2 | 66.0 ± 4.5 |
Second grade | 25 | 7.9 ± 0.1 | 106 ± 7.0 |
Third grade | 27 | 9.0 ± 0.1 | 112 ± 6.1 |
Fourth grade | 26 | 10.0 ± 0.1 | 153 ± 4.2 |
Fifth grade | 23 | 11.0 ± 0.1 | 160 ± 4.7 |
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Bucci, M.P.; Premeti, A.; Godart-Wendling, B. An Eye Tracker Study on the Understanding of Implicitness in French Elementary School Children. Brain Sci. 2024, 14, 1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121195
Bucci MP, Premeti A, Godart-Wendling B. An Eye Tracker Study on the Understanding of Implicitness in French Elementary School Children. Brain Sciences. 2024; 14(12):1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121195
Chicago/Turabian StyleBucci, Maria Pia, Aikaterini Premeti, and Béatrice Godart-Wendling. 2024. "An Eye Tracker Study on the Understanding of Implicitness in French Elementary School Children" Brain Sciences 14, no. 12: 1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121195
APA StyleBucci, M. P., Premeti, A., & Godart-Wendling, B. (2024). An Eye Tracker Study on the Understanding of Implicitness in French Elementary School Children. Brain Sciences, 14(12), 1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121195