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Article

Body Balance Ability of Girls Practicing Cheerleading

by
Joanna Magdalena Bukowska
1,*,
Natalia Korycińska
2,
Małgorzata Potocka-Mitan
3,
Wioletta Śląska-Zyśk
4,
Dorota Różańska-Perlińska
5 and
Jarosław Jaszczur-Nowicki
1
1
Department Physiotherapy, School of Public Health, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-720 Olsztyn, Poland
2
Department of Tourism, Recreation and Ecology, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
3
Institute of Humanities, Social Sciences and Tourism, Podhale State College of Applied Sciences, 34-400 Nowy Targ, Poland
4
Warmian-Masurian Center for Lung Diseases, 10-357 Olsztyn, Poland
5
Medical Department, The Academy of Applied Medical and Social Sciences, 82-300 Elblag, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7098; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137098
Submission received: 20 May 2025 / Revised: 19 June 2025 / Accepted: 22 June 2025 / Published: 24 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motor Control and Movement Biomechanics)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Background: Cheerleading is an emerging and increasingly popular sport among girls. The figures performed during routines require a high level of balance from the athletes. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of participation in cheerleading classes on body balance in girls during early adolescence. Methods: A total of 35 female cheerleaders from the Power Stars Sząbruk Club (Poland) were divided into three age groups: 8–9 years (n = 15), 10–11 years (n = 11), and 12–14 years (n = 9). Balance assessment was performed using the E.P.S R/1 pedobarographic platform. The Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni post hoc correction was used to analyze intergroup differences in foot load distribution and balance parameters. Results: The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in the pressure on the forefoot area of the right foot (p = 0.007) between the 8–9 and 12–14 age groups, and in the balance level between the youngest group (8–9 years) and the oldest group (12–14 years) at p = 0.028, as well as between the middle group (10–11 years) and the oldest group (p = 0.004). Conclusions: Participation in cheerleading classes may influence the increase in balance, particularly in terms of the distance of center of pressure (C.O.P.) shifts and the average speed of these shifts. In adolescence, muscle development is crucial, and when closely linked with motor coordination, it helps maintain body stability.

1. Introduction

Cheerleading mainly involves a combination of dance, gymnastics, and acrobatic elements. Components that enhance the visual appeal of this discipline include specially designed costumes and the characteristic pom-poms held by the dancers. Competing teams perform technically demanding routines with highly developed choreography, which include pyramids, partner stunts, throws, catches, flips, dance sequences, and jumps [1,2,3,4,5]. A critical aspect of cheerleading performance is the accurate and safe execution of all movements, which serves to minimize the risk of injuries, including dislocations and other serious musculoskeletal injuries [3].
In Poland, cheerleading currently comprises three divisions: Performance Cheer, Pom Dance, and Cheer. Based on these divisions, various types of competitions have been established. Unlike the Pom Dance division, which primarily focuses on dance and basic gymnastic acrobatics, the Cheer division is characterized by more complex elements performed throughout the routine. The choreography includes both mandatory components and elements that yield the highest scores [6].
In addition to regulated visual elements such as costumes and makeup, dancer body morphology has historically been influenced by prevailing aesthetic norms. Although recent attention to this issue has diminished, past evidence indicates that cheerleaders often adopted weight management practices aimed at conforming to these norms. Such behaviors have been associated with adverse physical and psychological health outcomes. In the context of training and health, these factors remain relevant due to their potential impact on athlete well-being, injury risk, and performance [7].
Regarding the body composition of dancers, it can be considered that a higher amount of body fat negatively affects balance. In particular, the accumulation of adipose tissue in the lower body negatively impacts posture stability, which is why individuals with a greater lower-body mass are assigned to base positions in stunts. It is, however, well established that skeletal muscle mass is positively associated with balance, which is why training strategies aimed at increasing muscle mass and reducing body fat should be the main goal for improving postural control and balance [8,9,10].
During adolescence, numerous factors influence changes in the body composition of youth. For athletes, this is especially important, as physical activity is strongly linked to muscle development, bone structure, and body composition. These, in turn, affect the maintenance of body balance and the reduction of postural deviations [11]. One of the essential elements of training in cheerleading is stretching, which not only affects body balance but also helps reduce pain and discomfort [12].
With the onset of early adolescence, numerous physical changes occur, influencing postural balance, which is a key aspect of proper motor development. Over time, physical parameters such as body height increase, altering body proportions, and adolescents require time to adjust to these changes in order to maintain stability. Skeletal muscle development progresses, strength and endurance are enhanced, and the muscles responsible for maintaining balance are gradually strengthened, resulting in increased muscle mass. Changes also occur within the nervous system, and its maturation affects motor coordination, thereby improving the ability to control movements and reactions [13]. The intense development of the nervous system allows for controlling movements, posture, and balance. This occurs naturally; however, engaging in physical activity through various forms of exercise further enhances balance by building muscle mass, as well as supporting bone and nervous system development. Appropriate exercises and dance elements during training strengthen specific muscle groups.
Studies conducted on athletes aged 11 to 13 years confirm the beneficial effect of increasing muscle mass on postural coordination [14]. Similar mechanisms have also been observed in children with developmental coordination disorder [15].
It is generally accepted that balance, in conjunction with coordination, plays a fundamental role in most sports disciplines. In dance, balance is a crucial element and can be divided into static and dynamic components. Static balance refers to maintaining the body’s center of gravity within the base of support when in a fixed position, while dynamic balance pertains to sustaining postural stability during movement [16].
In dance sport, the ability to maintain balance is closely linked to the performance of various technical elements, as dancers must continuously regulate and adjust their movements. Athletes who train in this discipline at a professional level demonstrate high spatial awareness and the ability to orient themselves effectively in space. These skills, along with body flexibility, long-term training, and muscular strength, contribute to enhanced balance control. Postural balance is also influenced by the interaction of the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems. Dancers exhibit proficiency in utilizing one or more of these systems to regulate body position and prevent potential falls [17].
Despite the growing popularity of cheerleading as a sport discipline, scientific literature focusing on body balance analysis in youth cheerleaders remains limited. Most available studies concern artistic gymnastics or acrobatics, which, while sharing some elements with cheerleading, differ in training structure and performance goals. Existing cheerleading studies predominantly involve university-level or adult athletes. There is a distinct lack of biomechanical research on younger athletes (aged 8–14), who form a substantial segment of cheerleading participants in school and club contexts.
The aim of this study was to analyze whether participation in cheerleading training is associated with improved postural balance in girls aged 8–14.
It was hypothesized that older girls with longer training experience would exhibit better postural stability, as reflected by lower displacement and velocity of the center of pressure (C.O.P.). A secondary objective was to explore differences in foot load distribution across age groups.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

As the study was conducted in a small locality (Sząbruk), all eligible and available members of the local cheerleading club (Power Stars) were invited to participate and were subsequently included in the study, (n = 35), which was conducted across three age groups: 8–9 years (n = 15, average body weight 26.9 ± 6,9 kg, height 122.3 ± 7.9 cm), 10–11 years (n = 11, average body weight 35.3 ± 5.4 kg, height 140 ± 5.5 cm), and 12–14 years (n = 9, average body weight 46.7 ± 13.4 kg, height 154.9 ± 8.2 cm). The participants attended 60 min training sessions twice weekly, consisting of a general warm-up, acrobatic figure practice, choreography refinement, and cool-down exercises involving body stretching. All participants were members of the Pom Dance Elite division, categorized according to age. Training sessions across age groups were conducted in a comparable format and adapted to the participants’ developmental levels. Due to the study being conducted in a small locality (Sząbruk), all eligible and available members of the local cheerleading club (Power Stars) were invited to participate. Those who met the inclusion criteria were subsequently enrolled in the study. Inclusion criteria were regular participation in training sessions (twice weekly), absence of injuries within the past six months, and possession of a valid sports medical certificate confirming no contraindications for engaging in cheerleading. Exclusion criteria included lack of written consent from a legal guardian, absence from training on the day of the study, or failure to meet the inclusion criteria. Eligibility was determined based on coach-reported training attendance records, participant self-report, and verification through the medical health card (required for sports participation in Poland). At the time of the study, the athletes were in the middle of the preparatory season for the Polish Cheerleading Championships. Written informed consent was obtained from both parents and the coach. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Decision No. 9/2018).

2.2. Methods and Research Tools

To conduct the study, the following devices were used: Tanita InnerScan®V model BC-545N body weight scale (Tanita Corporation, Maenocho, Itabashiku, Tokyo, Japan), Soehnle electronic height meter (Soehnle, Gaildorfer Straße 6, Backnang, Germany), and E.P.S R/1 pedobarographic mat (Letsens Group, Letsens S.R.L. Via Buozzi, CastelMaggiore, Bologna, Italy) with BioMech Studio software (Biomech Studio 2.0 Manual, Letsens Group, Letsens S.R.L. Via Buozzi, CastelMaggiore, Bologna, Italy). They take measurements for 20 s and then transmit the data to a computer with software Biomech Studio. Static testing with the EPS R1 pedobarograph mat involves recording the pressure distribution exerted by the subject’s feet while standing still. A number of parameters are analyzed during the test to evaluate postural balance, weight distribution, and functional loading of the lower limbs. The most important of these are as follows: weight distribution between the lower extremities; pressure distribution in the foot’s different anatomical zones; body barycenter [mm2]; right (RF) and left foot (LF) barycenters [mm2]; average speed [mm/s]; and C.O.P. distance [mm]. Stability was determined using the aforementioned parameters. The EPS R1 platform is a medical device with a class I certificate and is used in the literature as a research tool by many authors [18,19].

2.3. Organization and Course of the Research

The study was conducted on 16 January 2024, at the Cultural Center in Sząbruk, where the participants’ regular training sessions are held.
The research procedure consisted of several stages. In the initial phase, a study schedule was developed. Prior to data collection, a detailed consultation was held with the coach to ensure that the research design was compatible with the existing training plan and would not disrupt the athletes’ regular activities. Subsequently, the experimental protocol was designed with careful consideration of all relevant factors to ensure precise and efficient data collection. The participants’ parents received comprehensive information regarding the aims and procedures of the study, along with an informed consent form for their child’s participation. Data collection was performed on the same day for all participants, during the afternoon, immediately prior to regular training, and in a quiet, isolated room at the training venue. Environmental conditions such as surface type and lighting were constant for all participants. First, the researcher entered the participants’ personal data into the BioMech Studio system, such as participant ID and date of birth. Height was measured using a Soehnle electronic stadiometer, during which participants were instructed to maintain an upright posture. Body weight was measured using the Tanita InnerScan®V model BC-545N. During this procedure, participants were required to stand motionless on the scale for several seconds. Subsequently, participants—after removing their footwear—stood barefoot on the E.P.S R/1 pedobarographic mat at the location designated by the researcher. No familiarization trial was conducted prior to the measurement. Each participant was instructed to take a few steps in place to achieve a natural foot position, then to stand still in an upright posture with feet positioned hip-width apart. Once the measurement was initiated, the device recorded data over 20 s, which was automatically transmitted to the BioMech Studio system. The test procedure is illustrated graphically in Figure 1.
The reference values used to classify longitudinal arch height categories in the study were determined based on the Cavanagh and Rodgers classification [20] and were then extended using the Biomech Studio 2.0 software calculation algorithm [21].
  • 0–7%—strong high arch
  • 7.1–14%—high arch
  • 14.1–21%—slightly high arch
  • 21.1–28%—normal foot
  • 28.1–35%—mild flatfoot
  • 35.1–42%—flat foot
  • 42.1–100%—strong flatfoot

2.4. Statistics

The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to assess the normality of the data distribution, which indicated deviations from normality. Consequently, the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis rank-sum test and Bonferroni post-hoc correction were used for further analysis. To evaluate the strength of the observed differences between groups, an effect size analysis was used in addition to the Kruskal–Wallis test. The epsilon squared coefficient (ε2), which is the recommended non-parametric measure for the Kruskal–Wallis test [22,23,24], was used as a measure of effect size. An approximate interpretation according to Cohen was used to analyze the data: 0.10 small effect, 0.3 medium effect, and >0.5 large effect [23]. For each pair of groups, the rank biserial correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to provide a more detailed estimation of effect strength. Interpretive scales were adopted for rank biserial correlation (r): 0.0–0.10 no effect, 0.10–0.30 small effect, 0.30–0.50 medium effect, and 0.50+ large effect [23,25]. Descriptive statistics included the mean, median, and quartiles. The level of significance in the study was set at p < 0.05. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica software (StatSoft Poland, Krakow, Poland, version 13.3).

3. Results

During the analysis, differences in foot arch height were observed among the cheerleading groups studied. The mean metatarsal surface pressure values in the group of girls aged 8–9 years indicated that indicated a significantly elevated arch. For the left foot (LF), the metatarsal surface pressure value was only 1.5% and for the right foot (RF), the value was in the range of average hollowing and was 11%. According to the mean values for the group of girls aged 10–11 years, both feet showed significant hollowing, with the left foot showing 2.3% and the right foot only 0.6%. In the oldest group (12–14 years), significant foot pronation was observed in both feet, and the value was in the range of significant pronation for the LF 0.0%, while for the RF the value was 1.7%. The detailed results of the podiatric examination in the age groups studied are shown in Table 1.
An analysis of the stabilographic results presented in Table 2, revealed differences in the magnitude of all parameters related to the displacement area of the center of pressure (COP) of the entire body, as well as of the left and right foot. In terms of the overall COP parameter, the youngest group of dancers (aged 8–9 years) demonstrated the lowest postural stability (227.2 mm2).
An increase in postural stability was observed in the older groups of girls. In the group aged 10–11 years, the average center of pressure (C.O.P.) area for the whole body was 198.3 mm2, while in the oldest group aged 12–14 years the average value was 137.8 mm2. The obtained results were statistically analyzed.
In the podiatric assessment, no statistically significant differences were detected between the groups for the majority of parameters characterizing plantar force distribution. This lack of significance was observed in the left foot across the forefoot, midfoot, and heel regions, as well as in the right foot within the midfoot and heel regions (Table 3 and Table 4).
Table 5 presents the epsilon squared (ε2) values for the examined variables, along with the rank biserial correlation coefficients (r) as a measure of effect size for each group comparison. The analysis indicated that the effect size based on ε2 were generally small or negligible. In contrast, the effect size measured by r was moderate for LF metatarsal loading in comparisons between age groups 8–9 and 12–14, as well as between age groups 10–11 and 12–14. A similar moderate effect was observed for LF heel loading between the 8–9 and 12–14 age groups. For the other parameters between the studied groups, r was small or absent.
The only parameter related to the distribution of plantar forces that reached statistical significance was pressure in the forefoot of the right foot. Statistically significant differences (p = 0.007) were observed between the youngest group (8–9 years) and the oldest group (12–14 years). It may be hypothesized that specific training demands and intensive practice of complex movements, such as pirouettes, dynamic leg lifts, and balance exercises, which typically involve unilateral weight-bearing, contribute to selective strengthening of the left foot musculature. This asymmetry may explain the observed differences. Data on the RF load distribution across groups are presented in Table 4 and Figure 2.
Effect size analysis indicated a medium effect for the RF forefoot area, while the other RF midfoot area and RF heel area showed negligible or small effects. A more detailed group-wise comparison revealed a large effect for the RF forefoot area loading between age groups 8–9 and 12–14. A medium effect was observed between age groups 8–9 and 10–11 and a small effect between age groups 10–11 and 12–14. Despite a small ε2 value, the R-score analysis confirmed a medium effect for forefoot loading between age groups 8–9 and 10–11, as well as between 8–9 and 12–14, with no significant effect between age groups 10–11 and 12–14. A similar trend was observed in the heel area of the right foot. Although ε2 indicated no effect, the rank biserial correlation (r) showed a medium effect between age groups 8–9 and 12–14, a small effect between 8–9 and 10–11, and no effect between 10–11 and 12–14 (Table 6).
Statistical analysis of the obtained data revealed no significant differences in sway parameters of the C.O.P. for the whole body, the right foot (RF), and the LF left foot (LF).
However, a statistically significant difference COP displacement was observed between the youngest group (8–9 years) and the oldest group (12–14 years) at p = 0.028, as well as between the middle group (10–11 years) and the oldest group (p = 0.004). As shown Table 2, the variability of COP displacement values decreased with age: the range was 288.2 mm2 in the youngest group, 127.1 mm2 in the 10–11 years group, and 78.6 mm2 in the oldest group (Figure 3).
The parameter related to the average speed of C.O.P shifts (Figure 4) also demonstrated statistically significant differences between the 8–9 years group and the 12–14 years group (p = 0.027), as well as between the 10–11 years group and the 12–14 years group (p = 0.004). Similar to the C.O.P. displacement variable, a decrease in the range of values was observed with increasing age and experience. The range was 14.4 mm/s; in the middle group it was 6.3 mm/s, and in the 12–14 years group, it was 3.9 mm/s.
Table 7 presents the ε2 values obtained for C.O.P. displacement distance and average speed C.O.P. Both parameters demonstrated a medium effect size. Statistically significant differences were observed for both the 8–9 vs. 12–14 and 10–11 vs. 12–14 age group comparisons. In these cases, the rank biserial correlation coefficient (r) indicated a large effect. The r values suggest that the oldest group (12–14 years) differs substantially from the younger groups in terms of stabilographic parameters, particularly with regard to C.O.P. distance and speed. For the remaining balance-related parameters not included in the table, both ε2 and r values were small or negligible.
It can be assumed that the observed differences in COP distance and the average speed are influenced by the specific techniques involved in cheerleading—such as acrobatic elements, dance steps, and balance-focused exercises—which, when practiced over the long term, contribute to improved postural stability.

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to assess whether participation in cheerleading is associated with improved postural stability among girls aged 8–14. Our findings confirmed that older participants (12–14 years) showed significantly lower center of pressure (C.O.P.) excursion and velocity compared to younger age groups, suggesting improved balance. The median C.O.P. distance decreased from 184.5 mm (8–9 years) to 147.9 mm (12–14 years), with a statistically significant difference (p = 0.028) and a large effect size (r = 0.531).
Moreover, statistically significant differences were found in right foot forefoot loading between age groups, with the youngest group exhibiting higher pressure values. Balance plays a critical role in cheerleading, representing a fundamental skill that enables athletes to execute and maintain various figures, acrobatic elements, poses, and complex dance movements. The findings of the present study highlight the importance of postural control in enhancing performance quality and reducing injury risk among cheerleading athletes. Unlike prior research that primarily addressed overall physical fitness and injury incidence, this study specifically examines balance in relation to athletes’ experience and training seniority. The observed age-related improvements in stabilographic parameters may reflect the unique physical demands of cheerleading routines as well as neuromuscular adaptations arising from long-term training. The data indicate a decrease in center of pressure (COP) displacement with increasing age and training experience. These results support the hypothesis that engagement in cheerleading training contributes to enhanced postural control and balance. This evidence further suggests that targeted interventions focused on balance improvement could yield performance enhancements and mitigate injury risk—an area that remains underexplored in the current scientific literature.
The results of the present study indicate that regular cheerleading significantly improves postural control. This finding is corroborated by recent research employing advanced biomechanical assessment techniques. Studies utilizing stabilometric platforms have demonstrated that interventions based on dynamic movement sequences (e.g., aerobic dance) reduce center of pressure (COP) displacement by approximately 12–18% under unstable surface conditions [26].
These results are consistent with the findings of Muehlbauer and Schedler (2022), who reported that an 8-week balance training program increased dynamic balance reach distance, as measured by the Y-Balance Test, by 9.2% in 11-year-old children, regardless of sex [27]. Additionally, Chatzopoulos et al. found that a 6-week exercise intervention incorporating rhythmic components improved Flamingo test performance by 22% in preschool children, supporting the efficacy of training programs that integrate motor control and coordination elements [28].
Importantly, unlike traditional balance training protocols that often require specialized equipment, cheerleading inherently includes proprioceptive challenges, deep musculature engagement, and dynamic stabilization demands, which may account for the observed improvements in postural control parameters [26,27,28].
Wang, in his research, demonstrated the positive influence of dance training on balance and overall physical fitness in children. The study aimed to assess the effects of a six-month dance intervention combined with regular physical education among children aged 6 to 12. Various research tools were employed to evaluate both physical fitness indicators and psychosocial functioning in experimental and control groups. The findings revealed that children in the dance training group significantly outperformed their peers in the control group, particularly in parameters such as lung capacity, flexibility, and balance [29].
Richmond et al. investigated the impact of fat distribution and dietary behaviors on balance and performance among acrobats and athletes engaged in acrobatic disciplines. Their findings indicated that basic-level athletes exhibited significantly higher values for BMI, total body fat percentage, and trunk fat compared to top-level athletes. Statistically significant differences were also observed between skeletal muscle mass and balance, as well as between body fat percentage and fat accumulation in the lower limbs. Notably, in top-level athletes, the proportion of skeletal muscle mass and fat during a handstand were associated. Consistent with the findings of the present study, the authors emphasized that strategies aimed at increasing skeletal muscle mass and reducing body fat should be prioritized to enhance balance [30].
Bukowska et al. carried out a study evaluating body balance, podological parameters, and body composition in young football players. The study involved 90 young football players from Olsztyn and Barczewo in three age groups: 8–10 years, 11–13 years, and 14–16 years. The results showed that under the influence of structured training, a statistically significant increase in postural stability was observed with age. These findings support the conclusions of the present study, namely that regular physical activity—whether in football or cheerleading—enhances postural control over time. It can be hypothesized that the specific training routines and intense exercises used to prepare for complex movements such as pirouettes, kicks and balances, which typically involve supporting the body’s weight on one limb, contribute to unilateral muscular development, particularly in the left foot. This may explain the asymmetries observed in present research [31]. As in football, cheerleading exercises that require repetitive, high-intensity use of the foot muscles may increase the flexibility of the longitudinal arch, improving its ability to stabilize and absorb shock. Consequently, it can be assumed that forefoot pressure on the supporting foot is reduced compared to the opposite limb, which bears more load during toe-based movements. A fundamental element in biomechanical analysis is identifying the dominant side of the dancers, as lateralization plays a key role. One potential confounding factor is the predominance of the right foot as the dominant limb during performance. This asymmetry often informs choreographic decisions, as trainers consider limb dominance when arranging movement sequences to ensure optimal synchronization and performance consistency. However, it should be noted that lateralization was not assessed in the present study, and thus the influence of limb dominance on the observed asymmetries cannot be determined. This aspect may represent a valuable direction for future research.
Mańko et al., in their research comparing two training programs, evaluated the effects of standard physical activity routines comprising a warm-up and a main phase with exercises. Program A concluded with stretching exercises, while Program B incorporated vibration training aimed at improving postural balance, confirming the positive role of physical activity in stabilometric improvements [32]. Similarly, Pieniążek et al. confirmed that physical activity has a positive impact on postural balance. In their study, they assessed the effectiveness of rehabilitation conducted in a water environment and compared the outcomes with those of patients undergoing gym-based rehabilitation. After a one-month intervention, the results indicated that hydrotherapy led to greater improvements in balance compared to traditional land-based exercises. Nevertheless, both groups exhibited statistically significant progress in balance performance [33].
Despite offering valuable insights into postural balance within the context of cheerleading, the present study has several noteworthy limitations that may affect the generalizability of the results. The most significant limitation is the small sample size, which included athletes from only one cheerleading team. While this study allowed for an in-depth examination of the training specificity and balance-related outcomes within a particular setting, restricting the sample to a single team may limit the representativeness of the results. Furthermore, a formal power analysis was not conducted prior to data collection due to the exploratory and observational nature of the study and the limited pool of eligible participants. Consequently, the sample size was determined by participant availability rather than statistical considerations, which may further constrain the interpretability and generalizability of the results. Cheerleading is a globally practiced discipline, and various clubs may adopt different training methods, techniques, and approaches to physical fitness development. Consequently, outcomes observed in one team may not accurately reflect the broader population of cheerleading athletes, particularly given potential cultural, geographic, and organizational differences.
Secondly, the analysis was limited to athletes from one division. Due to the specificity of motor development and the varying technical demands in other divisions, it is not possible to generalize the findings regarding balance to the broader context of the sport.
The next notable limitation involves individual variability among the participants. Cheerleading is a discipline where differences in physical abilities, such as strength, agility, flexibility, and motor skills, can be significant. Each individual has unique physical predispositions that may affect their ability to maintain balance. Other factors such as training experience, motivation, psychological state, nutrition, lifestyle, and hormonal fluctuations can influence balance outcomes. In such a context, the results may vary considerably between individuals, making group-level interpretations more complex. The absence of standardized clinical or functional assessments limited the ability to conduct a more detailed analysis.
Finally, the study was cross-sectional, which precluded an assessment of balance changes over time or the effects of specific training interventions. A longitudinal approach to monitor the progression of balance skills and evaluate the long-term effectiveness of tailored training methods.
The E.P.S R/1 pedobarographic mat was used to analyze static balance by measuring center of pressure (C.O.P.) displacement. However, its methodological limitations, such as lower sampling frequency and sensitivity compared to high-precision force plates, may affect the accuracy and reliability of the measurements [34,35].
Further research should include a larger and more diverse sample of female athletes, encompassing various clubs, divisions, and competitive levels. It would also be worth considering the use of biomechanical measurements under dynamic conditions, reflecting real-life sport-specific performance scenarios and training environments. Such an approach would allow a more complete characterization of balance abilities in the context of the specificity of cheerleading as a discipline combining elements of gymnastics, dance and acrobatics. In future studies with larger datasets, it may be that alternative adjustments (e.g., Holm–Bonferroni) may be more appropriate.
This study adds to the limited literature on postural stability in pre-adolescent cheerleaders by demonstrating that balance parameters improve with increasing age and continued training. These results underscore the importance of early intervention and specialized training programs to enhance balance development in young athletes, particularly in disciplines characterized by complex choreography and acrobatic demands. For young individuals, it is particularly important to monitor proper postural development and promptly detect any abnormalities. Coaches should ensure exercises are performed with correct technique to avoid potential injuries or sprains. The exercises should target both sides of the body and apply equal pressure to them. This promotes symmetrical muscle development, which is closely related to postural control and balance.

5. Conclusions

Based on the conducted study, it was determined that age and the associated training experience in cheerleading significantly influence balance levels in children and adolescents. Comparative analysis of the three age groups (8–9, 10–11, and 12–14 years) revealed statistically significant differences in stabilographic parameters, such as center of pressure and average speed. A clear trend of improved postural stability with increasing age was observed, indicating the beneficial effects of long-term training and maturation of the neuromuscular system on postural control. The oldest group (12–14 years) demonstrated the highest balance performance, suggesting progressive development of motor skills and biomechanical adaptations related to cheerleading practice.
These findings emphasize the importance of early and systematic balance and postural control training in youth athletes, particularly in disciplines requiring precise motor coordination and maintenance of body stability during dynamic and complex movement sequences. Furthermore, the obtained data may serve as a basis for further research aimed at optimizing training programs in cheerleading, taking into account the specifics of motor development in children at different maturation stages.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.M.B. and J.J.-N.; methodology, J.M.B., N.K. and J.J.-N.; software, J.M.B., N.K. and M.P.-M.; validation, W.Ś.-Z., D.R.-P. and J.J.-N.; formal analysis, J.M.B. and N.K.; investigation, J.M.B. and N.K.; resources, J.M.B. and N.K.; data curation, J.M.B. and N.K.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M.B. and N.K.; writing—review and editing, M.P.-M., D.R.-P. and J.J.-N.; visualization, J.M.B., N.K. and W.Ś.-Z.; supervision, J.M.B. and J.J.-N.; project administration, J.M.B. and J.J.-N.; funding acquisition, D.R.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The research was conducted based on the approval of the Ethics Committee of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Decision No. 9/2018).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all legal guardians of the participants taking part in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
LFLeft foot
RFRight foot
C.O.P.Center of Pressure

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Applsci 15 07098 g001
Figure 1. Scheme of the test procedure. Source: own research.
Figure 1. Scheme of the test procedure. Source: own research.
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Figure 2. Differences in pressure on the forefoot area in the right foot in the age groups studied.
Figure 2. Differences in pressure on the forefoot area in the right foot in the age groups studied.
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Figure 3. Differences in C.O.P. distances among the age groups studied.
Figure 3. Differences in C.O.P. distances among the age groups studied.
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Figure 4. Differences in the average rate of excursion of the body’s center of gravity in the age groups studied.
Figure 4. Differences in the average rate of excursion of the body’s center of gravity in the age groups studied.
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Table 1. Characteristics of the distribution of foot pressure forces in the age groups of the studied girls.
Table 1. Characteristics of the distribution of foot pressure forces in the age groups of the studied girls.
LF Forefoot Area [%]LF Midfoot Area [%]LF Heel Area [%]RF Forefoot Area [%]RF Midfoot Area [%]RF Heel Area [%]
Cheerleaders 8–9 years (n = 15)
Me35.51.554.640.71147.3
Q129.5030.927.62.636.7
Q343.933.664.950.013.260.3
Cheerleaders 10–11 years (n = 11)
Me27.52.357.651.20.639.0
Q125.10.033.246.40.026.6
Q342.339.466.857.014.653.4
Cheerleaders 12–14 years (n = 9)
Me36.40.063.652.11.741.3
Q125.40.052.150.90.033.3
Q347.90.074.463.52.047.9
Me—median, Q1—quartile 1, Q3—quartile 3, LF—left foot, RF—right foot.
Table 2. Characteristics of changes in the position of the center of gravity of the body in the age groups of the girls studied.
Table 2. Characteristics of changes in the position of the center of gravity of the body in the age groups of the girls studied.
Body Centre [mm2]Barycentre LF [mm2]Barycentre RF [mm2]C.O.P. Distance [mm]Average Speed [mm/s]
Cheerleaders 8–9 years (n = 15)
Me227.216.320.1184.59.2
Q1142.24.512.3159.18.0
Q3383.532.881.1277.713.9
Cheerleaders 10–11 years (n = 11)
Me198.38.838.0199.910.0
Q1127.91.219.0188.19.4
Q3322.511.869.6269.813.5
Cheerleaders 12–14 years (n = 9)
Me137.811.421.1147.97.4
Q198.09.914.1134.76.7
Q3161.414.725.9161.48.1
Me—median, Q1—quartile 1, Q3—quartile 3, LF—left foot, RF—right foot, C.O.P.—center of pressure.
Table 3. Statistical significance of differences in pressure distribution parameters in the left foot between the studied age groups.
Table 3. Statistical significance of differences in pressure distribution parameters in the left foot between the studied age groups.
Variable/TestLF Forefoot Area [%]LF Midfoot Area [%]LF Heel Area [%]
Kruskal–Wallis Test (p)0.3350.0810.212
Post hoc test with Bonferroni correction
Age group comparison
8–9 vs. 10–110.4181.0001.000
8–9 vs. 12–141.0000.1630.237
10–11 vs. 12–141.0000.1820.775
LF—left foot.
Table 4. Statistical significance of differences in pressure distribution parameters in the right foot between the studied age groups.
Table 4. Statistical significance of differences in pressure distribution parameters in the right foot between the studied age groups.
Variable/TestRF Forefoot Area [%]RF Midfoot Area [%]RF Heel Area [%]
Kruskal–Wallis test (p)0.004 *0.0990.192
Post hoc test with Bonferroni correction
Age group comparison
8–9 vs. 10–110.0550.3480.466
8–9 vs. 12–140.007 *0.1570.326
10–11 vs. 12–141.0001.0001.000
RF—right foot, * Statistically significant differences were established at p ≤ 0.05.
Table 5. The effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient (ε2) for the variable and the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation (r) for the left foot parameters.
Table 5. The effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient (ε2) for the variable and the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation (r) for the left foot parameters.
Variable/TestLF Forefoot Area [%]LF Midfoot Area [%]LF Heel Area [%]
Epsilon squared (ε2)0.064 10.148 10.091 1
Post hoc effect size (r)
Age group comparison
8–9 vs. 10–110.289 10.016 10.115 1
8–9 vs. 12–140.106 10.393 20.359 2
10–11 vs. 12–140.183 10.419 20.253 1
LF—left foot, ε2—the effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient, r—the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation, 1 weak or no effect, 2 medium effect, 3 large effect.
Table 6. The effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient (ε2) for the variable and the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation (r) for the right foot parameters.
Table 6. The effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient (ε2) for the variable and the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation (r) for the right foot parameters.
Variable/TestRF Forefoot Area [%]RF Midfoot Area [%]RF Heel Area [%]
Epsilon squared (ε2)0.319 20.136 10.097
Post hoc effect size (r)
Age group comparison
8–9 vs. 10–110.462 20.308 20.279 1
8–9 vs. 12–140.623 30.396 20.328 2
10–11 vs. 12–140.175 10.0970.056
RF—left foot, ε2—the effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient, r—the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation, 1 weak or no effect, 2 medium effect, 3 large effect.
Table 7. The effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient (ε2) for the variable and the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation (r) for the body balance parameters.
Table 7. The effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient (ε2) for the variable and the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation (r) for the body balance parameters.
Variable/TestDistance C.O.P.Average Speed
Epsilon squared (ε2)0.324 20.322 2
Post hoc effect size (r)
Age group comparison
8–9 vs. 10–110.167 10.160 1
8–9 vs. 12–140.531 30.534 3
10–11 vs. 12–140.715 30.710 3
C.O.P.—center of pressure, ε2—the effect size of the epsilon squared coefficient, r—the effect size measure of the rank biserial correlation, 1 weak or no effect, 2 medium effect, 3 large effect.
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Bukowska, J.M.; Korycińska, N.; Potocka-Mitan, M.; Śląska-Zyśk, W.; Różańska-Perlińska, D.; Jaszczur-Nowicki, J. Body Balance Ability of Girls Practicing Cheerleading. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 7098. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137098

AMA Style

Bukowska JM, Korycińska N, Potocka-Mitan M, Śląska-Zyśk W, Różańska-Perlińska D, Jaszczur-Nowicki J. Body Balance Ability of Girls Practicing Cheerleading. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(13):7098. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137098

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bukowska, Joanna Magdalena, Natalia Korycińska, Małgorzata Potocka-Mitan, Wioletta Śląska-Zyśk, Dorota Różańska-Perlińska, and Jarosław Jaszczur-Nowicki. 2025. "Body Balance Ability of Girls Practicing Cheerleading" Applied Sciences 15, no. 13: 7098. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137098

APA Style

Bukowska, J. M., Korycińska, N., Potocka-Mitan, M., Śląska-Zyśk, W., Różańska-Perlińska, D., & Jaszczur-Nowicki, J. (2025). Body Balance Ability of Girls Practicing Cheerleading. Applied Sciences, 15(13), 7098. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137098

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