Assessment of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement with By-Products and Comparison with an Asphalt Pavement: A Review
Abstract
:Featured Application
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Mechanical and Durability Properties of Asphalt Concrete and Concrete Paving Block
2.1. Influence of Mix Parameters on Pavement Performance
2.2. Influence of Fibers and Recycled Materials from Civil Construction on Pavements’ Performances
3. Sustainability Aspects of Asphalt and Interlocking Concrete Block Pavements
3.1. The Heat Island Effect from Pavement Surfaces
3.2. Contaminant Concentrations from Pavement Infiltration
4. Stormwater Management in Permeable Pavements
5. Structural Design of Asphalt and Interlocking Concrete Block Pavements
6. Pavement Construction, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation Based on Life Cycle Assessment
7. Conclusions
- Mix parameters (Section 2.1): fc was increased by 156% for CPB with appropriate packing optimization. Gyratory compaction was enough for an adequate air void range (3–5%) for AC, according to studies found in the literature. Furthermore, a higher mixing temperature led to a lower clustering of RAP in an AC, which contributed to a more isotropic spatial distribution of the aggregates, and then better AC mechanical and durability properties;
- Influence of by-products (Section 2.2): For AC with RCAs, alternative mixes showed 13–45% higher results for the tests of Marshall stability than the control mix, according to studies found in the literature. Furthermore, applying fibers contributed to a 10.52% increase in fc and a 45% increase in abrasion resistance for CPB, according to research in the literature;
- HIE effect (Section 3.1): ICBP was approximately cooler than AP by 2.2–15.0 °C, based on studies found in the literature, which implied that reflective pavement mitigated the HIE and improved human thermal comfort. However, ICBP might show a faster temperature rise when the surrounding buildings absorb the reflected solar radiation using ICBP;
- Contaminant concentrations (Section 3.2): ICBP and AP had the most effective contaminant removal rates for Pb (70–98%) and Fe (64–90%), but NO2– + NO3– (nitrogen oxides) concentrations in the AP infiltrates were 32% lower than in ICBP, according to studies found in the literature. Then, for better ICBP construction practices, the riparian buffer was highlighted for denitrification;
- Stormwater management (Section 4): The runoff reduction by permeable pavements averaged 35% to 41% in SWMM simulations, but the rate decreased when the rainfall intensity increased, based on studies found in the literature. Furthermore, permeable ICBP showed permeability or infiltration rate results higher than porous AP by 0.4–0.6 cm/s, but the rate decreased over the months, indicating the need for more frequent routine maintenance;
- Structural design (Section 5): Software developed for each pavement (FlexPAVE and MeDiNa for AP, PICP tool, and DesignPave for ICBP) were used to provide information such as fatigue cracking, stress–strength ratios, and the quantity of materials for the structures. Then, the design made using mechanistic–empirical programs assisted in the pavement’s long-term viability compared to empirical design methods;
- LCA (Section 6): ICBP was approximately 33–44% cheaper than AP in the maintenance phase. However, AP was around 35% cheaper during the construction phase (mainly due to energy consumption). Furthermore, in ICBP construction, cement production and CPB manufacturing took up about 50% and 48% of the total embodied energy, respectively, according to studies found in the literature. In addition, the by-products are alternatives for reducing costs for pavement construction. In a field application, warm AC with RAP and RCAs was 5–8% less costly (direct and environmental) than a conventional hot AC.
8. Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
1.4–DB | Dichlorobenzene | IT | Infiltration trenches |
AC | Asphalt concrete | K | Potassium |
ADP | Abiotic depletion potential | LCA | Life Cycle Assessment |
AP | Asphalt pavement | LCC | Life Cycle Cost |
APO | Acidification potential | LDPE | Low-density polyethylene |
BC | Bioretention cells | MeDiNa | National Design Method |
C2H4 | Ethylene | Mg | Magnesium |
Ca | Calcium | Mn | Manganese |
CCP | Continuous concrete pavement | Na | Sodium |
Cd | Cadmium | NH3 | Ammonia |
CDW | Construction and demolition waste | NO2– | Nitrite |
CFC–11 | Trichlorofluoromethane | NO3– | Nitrate |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide | NOx | Nitrogen oxides |
COD | Chemical oxygen demand | ODP | Ozone layer depletion potential |
CPBs | Concrete paving blocks | Pb | Lead |
CSP | Concrete slab pavement | PET | Polyethylene terephthalate |
Cu | Copper | PICP | Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement |
DesignPave | Design of Concrete Block Pavements | PO43– | Phosphate |
EC | Energy consumption | POCP | Photochemical ozone creation potential |
Em | Elasticity modulus | RAP | Recycled asphalt pavement |
EP | Eutrophication potential | RCAs | Recycled concrete aggregates |
ES | Excavated soil | Sb | Antimony |
fc | Compressive strength | SO2 | Sulfur dioxide |
Fe | Iron | SWMM | Stormwater management model |
FlexPAVE | Flexible Pavement | TiO2 | Titanium dioxide |
FWD | Falling Weight Deflectometer | TN | Total nitrogen |
GWP | Global warming potential | TP | Total phosphorus |
HIE | Heat island effect | TSS | Total suspended solids |
HTP | Human toxicity potential | wa | Water absorption |
ICBP | Interlocking concrete block pavement | Zn | Zinc |
IRI | International Roughness Index |
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Materials | Marshall Stability | Rutting Resistance | Stiffness | Fatigue Resistance | Resistance to Water | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Warm AC with RCAs 1 | ⇑ 3 | ⇗ 4 ⇘ 5 | ⇓ 6 | ⇒ 7 | ⇘ 5 | ||
Hot AC with RCAs 2 | ⇑ 3 | ⇑ 3 | ⇗ 4 ⇘ 5 | ⇗ 4 ⇘ 5 | ⇓ 6 | ⇗ 4 ⇘ 5 | ⇓ 6 |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Mix | Mix Parameters | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
[42] | Chu et al. | CPB | Aggregate packing | With appropriate packing optimization, the alternative (with only recycled aggregate) CPB’s compressive strength (fc) increased by 156% from 30.9 MPa to 79.2 MPa. |
[53] | Dash and Panda | AC | Method and level of compaction | Regarding gyratory compaction, 40 gyrations were enough for an adequate air void range (3–5%) in cold mixes. |
[54] | Cavalli et al. | AC | Mixing temperature | Using a 3D X-ray computed tomography image, a higher mixing temperature led to a lower degree of clustering of recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) and a better distribution of the aggregates. |
Countries | CDW Composition 1 | CDW Recycling Percentage (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
RCAs, Mortar, and Ceramic Waste (%) | RAP (%) | Other Materials 2 (%) | ||
Germany | 45.0 | 35.0 | 20.0 | 90.0 3 |
Belgium | 81.0 | 11.0 | 8.0 | 89.0 3 |
South Korea | 65.0 | 19.0 | 16.0 | 98.0 1 |
Denmark | 83.0 | 9.0 | 8.0 | 81.0 3 |
Netherlands | 77.0 | 16.0 | 7.0 | 92.0 3 |
UK | 65.0 | 30.0 | 5.0 | 52.0 3 |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Mix | By-Products | Alternative Mixes’ Descriptions | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[60] | Nwakaire et al. | AC | RCAs | CR20: 20% replacement by weight of coarse granite with RCAs; CR40: 40% replacement by weight of coarse granite with RCAs; CR60: 60% replacement by weight of coarse granite with RCAs; CR80: 80% replacement by weight of coarse granite with RCAs; CR100: 100% replacement by weight of coarse granite with RCAs; FCR100: 100% replacement by weight of coarse and fine granite with RCAs. | The alternative mixes showed better results for Marshall stability, fatigue, impact strength, and abrasion resistance tests than the control mix with 100% granite. In addition, all the mixes performed well regarding skid resistance for motorways and heavily trafficked lanes. |
[61] | Shao et al. | RAP | AC–13/40%RAP: 40% of RAP in mix weight; AC–13/50%RAP: 50% of RAP in mix weight; AC–13/60%RAP: 60% of RAP in mix weight; AC–25/40%RAP: 40% of RAP in mix weight; AC–25/50%RAP: 50% of RAP in mix weight. | There was a dependence between the RAP content and an increase in the results of the mechanical tests, e.g., indirect tensile strength and the tensile strength ratio, of the AC. However, with an increase in RAP content, the improvements in mechanical performances weakened. | |
[70] | Shao-peng et al. | Fiber | 0.3%C: 0.3% of cellulose fibers in mix weight; 0.5%C: 0.5% of cellulose fibers in mix weight; 0.3%P: 0.3% of polyester fibers in mix weight; 0.5%P: 0.5% of polyester fibers in mix weight. | Regarding the tests of drain down, volumetric properties, and abrasion, the mixes with cellulose and polyester fibers satisfied the specification for porous AC design at 5.5% binder content. | |
[15] | Poon and Chan | CPB | RCAs | Control mix: 100% of RCAs in aggregate weight; 10T, 5T5G, 5T5B, 4B4G2T, 4B4G27 + Wa: 90% of RCAs in aggregate weight. | The 28-day fc of the mix with 90% RCA was 71.5–94.5% of the control mix, relating to a 5% decrease in the density of the paving blocks with less RCA in concrete. |
[16] | Hossiney et al. | RAP | GC–20RAP: 20% replacement by weight of virgin coarse and fine aggregates with RAP; GC–40RAP: 40% replacement by weight of virgin coarse and fine aggregates with RAP; GC–60RAP: 60% replacement by weight of virgin coarse and fine aggregates with RAP; GC–80RAP: 80% replacement by weight of virgin coarse and fine aggregates with RAP. | Incorporating RAP aggregates in concrete reduced the CPB abrasion resistance. The loss due to abrasion can be attributed to the softer bitumen in RAP, which reduced the alternative aggregate’s hardness. | |
[17] | Bang | Fiber | Mix with coconut fibers: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5% of fibers in mix weight; Mix with glass fibers: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4% of fibers in mix weight; Mix with nylon fibers: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4% of fibers in mix weight; Mix with polypropylene fibers: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5% of fibers in mix weight. | Glass and polypropylene fibers contributed to blocks, with a 10.52% and 45% increase in the fc and abrasion resistance, respectively. | |
[62] | Crucho et al. | Granular materials for layer base | RCAs and fiber | NA–2–0.1: 0.10% of coconut fibers in mix weight and no RCA (2% cement); RA–2–0: No coconut fibers and 100% of RCA in mix weight (2% cement); RA–2–0.1: 0.10% of coconut fibers and 100% of RCA in mix weight (2% cement); RA–3–0: No coconut fibers and 100% of RCA in mix weight (3% cement); RA–3–0.1: 0.10% of coconut fibers and 100% of RCA in mix weight (3% cement). | The mechanical tests revealed that the mixes with RCAs presented a reasonably similar performance to the mixtures with high-quality natural aggregates. In addition, mixes with fibers presented minimal losses of particles and splitting during test loading and post-test. These results showed the materials’ response under damaged conditions. |
[63] | Avirneni et al. | RAP | 80RAP:20VA: 80% replacement by weight of virgin aggregates with RAP; 60RAP:40VA: 60% replacement by weight of virgin aggregates with RAP. | The retained strengths of the mixes with 60% RAP by weight are higher than the minimum design strength, even after the aggressive wet/dry cycles. |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Pavements | Experimental Descriptions | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
[38] | Li et al. | AP ICBP |
| Under dry conditions, ICBP sections (average albedo of 0.27) were cooler than the AP section (average albedo of 0.08) by approximately 15 °C. Then, the ICBP sections mitigated the HIE and improved human thermal comfort. |
[83] | Cheng et al. | AP ICBP |
| In summer, after a dry period, the ICBP pedestrian walkway was cooler than the AP bicycle lane by 6.6 °C, while in winter, this difference decreased to 2.2 °C. It showed that as the air temperature decreased, the performance of AP and ICBP about the HIE became more equivalent. |
[84] | Shimazaki et al. | AP ICBP |
| In summer conditions, as reflective pavements tend to absorb less solar energy, the surface temperature was the highest on AS (52.9 °C), lower on WR13 (40.2 °C), and lowest on WR25 (39.4 °C). Then, the lower the solar reflectance, the higher the pavement surface temperature. |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Pavements | Experimental Descriptions | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
[96] | Zhang et al. | AP ICBP |
| The pavements had cumulative heavy metal removal rates of over 50%, with these being the most effective for Pb (84 ± 14%) and Fe (77 ± 13%) and less for Cu (68 ± 19%), Zn (66 ± 20%), and Mn (35 ± 35%). Metals with higher particulate fractions such as Pb and Fe were usually more easily retained by the pavements than the soluble elements, e.g., Cu, Zn, and Mn. |
[97] | Liu and Borst | AP ICBP |
| More than 99% Cu, nearly 60–99% Cd, and more than 90% of the Fe concentrations in permeable pavement infiltrates were less than the specifications. Na and K may exchange for calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) in underlying aggregates, promoting heavy metals leaching or mobilization. |
[88] | Razzaghmanesh and Borst | AP ICBP |
| All pavements reduced the NH3 concentration by an average rate of 73% compared to parking lot runoff. However, NO2–, NO3–, and TN concentrations increased by average rates of 263%, 74%, and 18%, respectively. These results are mainly due to the nitrification process that reduces NH3 sequentially to NO2– and NO3–. |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Pavements | Experimental Descriptions | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
[38] | Li et al. | AP ICBP |
| The permeable pavements could capture all of the stormwater runoff without creating surface ponding if well-designed. Furthermore, a suggestion for additional investigation was field studies to verify the hydraulic performance analysis and structural design performance under loading. |
[103] | Huang et al. | AP ICBP |
| A model for predicting hydraulic performance showed an R2 (0.762–0.907) accuracy and normalized root-mean-square (13.78–17.83%). Therefore, the proposed model was practical in modeling long-term pavement performance. |
[83] | Cheng et al. | AP ICBP |
| AP had infiltration rates above 1.0 cm/s, higher than the minimum specification of 1.0 × 10–2 cm/s. However, for ICBP, the infiltration rates were all lower than those for AP. At one location, the rate for ICBP started high at 1.1 × 10−2 cm/s, but it decreased to less than 0.2 × 10−2 cm/s after 11 months. Then, routine maintenance had to be more frequent for ICBP than for AP. |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Pavements | Software for the Pavement Design | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
[118] | Nemati et al. | AP | Flexible Pavement (FlexPAVE)—A finite element-based software for evaluating different AC structural contributions and predicting fatigue life. | All simulations showed that the predicted distress was a bottom-up fatigue cracking, and no failure points were indicated in the wearing course (surface layer). However, the FlexPAVE may be unable to completely simulate the actual field conditions because of the wide variations in the loading and climatic conditions. |
[119] | Silva and Santos | AP | National Design Method (MeDiNa)—Software with Multiple Layer Elastic Analysis, used to calculate stresses and strains in pavement structure under standard road axle wheel loading, applying fatigue and permanent strain models to adjust layer thicknesses. | The design made by MeDiNa collaborated with the long-term viability, and the pavements tended to reach their lifetime with higher safety and economy compared to empirical design methods. |
[120] | Li et al. | ICBP | Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement (PICP) tool—Excel spreadsheet used to run the expected total rut depth analyses based on the input values of pavement structure, material properties, climate, and traffic, and then, the required minimum thickness of the sub-base layer for a given allowable rut depth. | Higher shear stress–strength ratios at the foundation top, which represented a higher risk of rutting in the foundation, required thicker sub-base layers. The effect of the surface layer stiffness on pavement performance was insignificant because of the CPB’s small thickness (80 mm) and the reduced interlocking between them compared with blocks with sand joints. |
[8] | Silva | ICBP | Design of Concrete Block Pavements (DesignPave)—Software undertakes an iterative elastic calculation for the foundation’s permanent deformation, used in a damage law to calculate the required layer thickness for a specified design life. | 87.5% of the structures from the DesignPave software required fewer quantities of materials than empirical design methods. As traffic increased in intensity, the software sought to adopt higher thicknesses to reduce the possibility of layer failure. |
Ref. | Authors | Types of Pavements | Experimental Descriptions | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
[127] | Oliver-Solà et al. | ICBP Continuous concrete pavement (CCP) Concrete slab pavement (CSP) |
| The main contributor to environmental impacts for the various sidewalk types was cement use (GWP was the impact category in which cement contributed the most: B, 67.09%; C, 74.38%; S1, 75.25%; S2, 75.78%; S3, 76.40%; POCP was the category in which cement contributed the least: B, 24.08%; C, 29.71%; S1, 30.68%; S2, 31.44%; S3, 32.36%). Then, techniques were developed to use other types of cement with more additions and less clinker, being the main contributor to cement impact. |
[29] | Luo et al. | ICBP |
| Cement production and CPB manufacturing took up about 50% and 48% of the total EC, respectively. In addition, GWP, cement, and manufacturing processes accounted for around 46% and 52% of the overall carbon emissions in concrete production, respectively. Then, insights into the concrete mix using ES and RCA based on engineering properties and environmental benefits were highlighted. |
[132] | Abdeljaber et al. | ICBP Bioretention cells (BC) Infiltration trenches (ITs) |
| Concrete production was responsible for 50–69% of the impact on all categories, followed by pipe installation and road rehabilitation (19–25%). The advantage of the ICBP system over the base scenario with AP was the decrease in aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity by around 60%. |
LCA Results | Systems (Type of Pavement) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
System B (ICBP) | System C (CCP) | System S1 (CSP) | System S2 (CSP) | System S3 (CSP) | |
ADP (kg Sb 1 eq.) | 2.65 × 10−1 | 7.39 × 10−1 | 7.74 × 10−1 | 8.69 × 10−1 | 1.01 |
APO (kg SO2 2 eq.) | 8.62 × 10−2 | 2.28 × 10−1 | 2.43 × 10−1 | 2.66 × 10−1 | 3.00 × 10−1 |
EP (kg PO43– 3 eq.) | 1.60 × 10−2 | 4.16 × 10−2 | 4.43 × 10−2 | 4.85 × 10−2 | 5.47 × 10−2 |
GWP (kg CO2 4 eq.) | 1.97 × 10 | 5.33 × 10 | 5.79 × 10 | 6.45 × 10 | 7.43 × 10 |
HTP (kg 1.4–DB 5 eq.) | 1.32 | 3.33 | 3.63 | 4.04 | 4.65 |
ODP (kg CFC–11 6 eq.) | 1.40 × 10−6 | 3.32 × 10−6 | 3.55 × 10−6 | 3.93 × 10−6 | 4.49 × 10−6 |
POCP (kg C2H4 7 eq.) | 8.78 × 10−3 | 2.14 × 10−2 | 2.27 × 10−2 | 2.49 × 10−2 | 2.81 × 10−2 |
Section 2 | Section 3 | Section 4 | Section 5 | Section 6 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mix Parameters | Influence of By-Products | HIE Effect | Contaminants Concentrations | Stormwater Management | Structural Design | LCA |
Proposed granulometric zones for concrete used in porous CPB to ensure adequate packing density. | Testing RCAs and RAP together in AC to verify the increase or not of Marshall stability and indirect tensile strength. | Comparison of applying cool AP and ICBP for one year to check the albedo and temperature of each pavement over the seasons. | Explaining the higher effect of nitrification in ICBP than in AP. Then, the on-road emissions in different applications should be evaluated, e.g., highways, ports, and airports. | Software can be developed for AP or ICBP that combine the hydraulic design with the mechanical performance of the structure. | Developing progressive models regarding ICBP failures as a function of block shape, joint width, traffic loading, and pavement application. | Applying different methods for CPB production and installation, which may have effects on the environmental management and carbon footprint of ICBP. |
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Silva, W.; Picado-Santos, L.; Barroso, S.; Cabral, A.E.; Stefanutti, R. Assessment of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement with By-Products and Comparison with an Asphalt Pavement: A Review. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13105846
Silva W, Picado-Santos L, Barroso S, Cabral AE, Stefanutti R. Assessment of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement with By-Products and Comparison with an Asphalt Pavement: A Review. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(10):5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13105846
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilva, Webert, Luís Picado-Santos, Suelly Barroso, Antônio Eduardo Cabral, and Ronaldo Stefanutti. 2023. "Assessment of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement with By-Products and Comparison with an Asphalt Pavement: A Review" Applied Sciences 13, no. 10: 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13105846
APA StyleSilva, W., Picado-Santos, L., Barroso, S., Cabral, A. E., & Stefanutti, R. (2023). Assessment of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement with By-Products and Comparison with an Asphalt Pavement: A Review. Applied Sciences, 13(10), 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13105846