Migration, Rural–Urban Connectivity, and Food Remittances in Kenya
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- UN (United Nations). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Fox, S. Urbanisation as a Global Historical Process: Theory and Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. In Africa’s Urban Revolution; Parnell, S., Pieterse, E., Eds.; Zed Press: London, UK, 2014; pp. 257–283. [Google Scholar]
- Fox, S. Mortality, Migration and Rural Transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa’s Rural Transformation. J. Demogr. Econ. 2016, 83, 13–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Parnell, S.; Pieterse, E. (Eds.) Africa’s Urban Revolution; Zed Press: London, UK, 2014; pp. 257–283. [Google Scholar]
- Baker, J. (Ed.) Small Town Africa: Studies in Rural-Urban Interaction; Scandinavian Institute of African Studies: Uppsala, Sweden, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Baker, J.; Pedersen, P. (Eds.) The Rural-Urban Interface in Africa: Expansion and Adaptation; Scandinavian Institute of African Studies: Uppsala, Sweden, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Evans, H.E.; Ngau, P. Rural-Urban Relations, Household Income Diversification and Agricultural Productivity. Dev. Chang. 1991, 22, 519–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parkin, D. (Ed.) Town and Country in Central and Eastern Africa; Routledge: London, UK, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Potter, R.; Unwin, T. (Eds.) The Geography of Urban-Rural Interaction in Developing Countries; Routledge: London, UK, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Tacoli, C. (Ed.) Rural-Urban Linkages; Earthscan: London, UK, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Agergaard, J.; Tacoli, C.; Steel, G.; Ørtenblad, S. Revisiting Rural-Urban Transformations and Small Town Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Eur. J. Dev. Res. 2019, 31, 2–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Proctor, F.; Berdegué, J. Food Systems at the Rural-Urban Interface. In Handbook on Urban Food Security in the Global South; Crush, J., Frayne, B., Haysom, G., Eds.; Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, UK, 2020; pp. 166–197. [Google Scholar]
- Djurfeldt, A.A. Multi-Local Livelihoods and Food Security in Rural Africa. J. Int. Dev. 2015, 27, 528–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steinbrink, M.; Niedenführ, H. Africa on the Move: Migration, Translocal Livelihoods and Rural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Harris, J.; Todaro, M. Migration, Unemployment, and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis. Am. Econ. Rev. 1970, 60, 126–142. [Google Scholar]
- Todaro, M. A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developed Countries. Am. Econ. Rev. 1969, 59, 138–148. [Google Scholar]
- Elkan, W. Circular Migration and the Growth of Towns in East Africa. Int. Labour Rev. 1967, 96, 581–589. [Google Scholar]
- Oucho, J.; Oucho, L.; Ochieng, V. Is Migration the Solution to Poverty Alleviation in Kenya? Rural-Urban Migration Experiences of Migrants from Western Kenya to Kisumu and Nairobi; Migrating Out of Poverty Working Paper No. 21; Sussex University: Brighton, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Mberu, B.; Ezeh, A.; Chepngeno-Langat, G.; Ezeh, A.; Kimani, J.; Beguy, D. Family Ties and Urban–Rural Linkages among Older Migrants in Nairobi Informal Settlements. Popul. Space Place 2013, 19, 275–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bang, J.; Mitra, A.; Wunnava, P. Do Remittances Improve Income Inequality? An Instrumental Variable Quantile Analysis of the Kenyan Case. Econ. Model. 2016, 58, 394–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jena, F. Migrant Remittances and Physical Investment Purchases: Evidence from Kenyan Households. J. Dev. Stud. 2017, 54, 312–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maara, J.; Manda, D.; Kiiru, J. Remittances and Household Expenditure Allocation Behavior in Kenya. Afr. J. Econ. Rev. 2019, 7, 85–108. [Google Scholar]
- Kingiri, A.; Fu, X. Understanding the Diffusion and Adoption of Digital Finance Innovation in Emerging Economies: M-Pesa Money Mobile Transfer Service in Kenya. Innov. Dev. 2020, 10, 67–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Formy, R. The Impact of Mobile Money on Remittance Recipients’ Household Welfare and Education: Evidence from Kenya. In Migration, Remittances and Sustainable Development in Africa; Konte, M., Mbaye, L., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2021; pp. 157–176. [Google Scholar]
- Lacroix, T. Migration, Rural Development, Poverty and Food Security: A Comparative Perspective; International Migration Institute, Oxford University: Oxford, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Crush, J. Linking Migration, Development and Urban Food Security. Int. Migr. 2013, 51, 61–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Crush, J.; Caesar, M. Cultivating the Migration-Food Security Nexus. Int. Migr. 2017, 55, 19–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chikanda, A.; Crush, J.; Tawodzera, G. Urban Food Security and South-South Migration to Cities of the Global South. In Handbook on Urban Food Security in the Global South; Crush, J., Frayne, B., Haysom, G., Eds.; Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, UK, 2020; pp. 261–281. [Google Scholar]
- Atuoye, K.; Kiuure, V.; Kangmennaang, J.; Antabe, R.; Luginaah, I. Residential Remittances and Food Security in the Upper West Region of Ghana. Int. Migr. 2017, 55, 18–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mabrouk, F.; Mekni, M.M. Remittances and Food Security in African Countries. Afr. Dev. Rev. 2018, 30, 252–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sulemana, I.; Anarfo, E.B.; Quartey, P. International remittances and household food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Migr. Dev. 2019, 8, 264–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ebadi, N.; Ahmadi, D.; Melgar-Quiñonez, H. Domestic and International Remittances and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Remit. Rev. 2020, 5, 37–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tshikala, S.; Konstandini, G.; Fonsah, E. The Impact of Migration, Remittances and Public Transfers on Technology Adoption: The Case of Cereal Producers in Rural Kenya. J. Agric. Econ. 2019, 17, 316–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tacoli, C.; Vorley, B. Reframing the Debate on Urbanisation, Rural Transformation and Food Security; IIED Briefing: London, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Crush, J.; Pendleton, W. Remitting for Survival: Rethinking the Development Potential of Remittances in Southern Africa. Glob. Dev. Stud. 2009, 5, 53–84. [Google Scholar]
- Crush, J.S.; Caesar, M.S. Food remittances and food security: A review. Migr. Dev. 2017, 7, 180–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frayne, B. Pathways of food: Mobility and food transfers in Southern African cities. Int. Dev. Plan. Rev. 2010, 32, 291–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Frayne, B.; Crush, J. Food Supply and Urban-Rural Links in Southern African Cities. In Food and Nutrition Security in Southern African Cities; Frayne, B., Crush, J., McCordic, C., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK, 2018; pp. 34–47. [Google Scholar]
- Djurfeldt, A.A. Virtuous and Vicious Cycles in Rural–Urban Linkages: Cases from Zimbabwe. Afr. Rev. 2012, 4, 136–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frayne, B. Migration and urban survival strategies in Windhoek, Namibia. Geoforum 2004, 35, 489–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frayne, B. Migration and the changing social economy of Windhoek, Namibia. Dev. S. Afr. 2007, 24, 91–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nickanor, N.; Crush, J.; Pendleton, W. Migration, Rural-Urban Linkages and Food Insecurity. In Rapid Urbanisation, Urban Food Deserts and Food Security in Africa; Crush, J., Battersby, J., Eds.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 127–142. [Google Scholar]
- Owuor, S. Migrants, Urban Poverty and the Changing Nature of Urban-Rural Linkages in Kenya. In Surviving on the Move: Migration, Poverty and Development in Southern Africa; Crush, J., Frayne, B., Eds.; Idasa Publishing: Cape Town, South Africa, 2010; pp. 117–131. [Google Scholar]
- Tawodzera, G.; Godfrey, T. Rural-Urban Transfers and Household Food Security in Harare’s Crisis Context. J. Food Nutr. Disord. 2013, 2, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owuor, S. The State of Household Food Security in Nairobi, Kenya; Report No. 11; Hungry Cities Partnership: Cape Town, South Africa, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Mattes, R. Lived Poverty on the Rise: Decades of Living Standards Gains Ends in Africa; Policy Paper No. 62; Afrobarometer: Cape Town, South Africa, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- KNBS. 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census; Kenya National Bureau of Statistics: Nairobi, Kenya, 2019; Volume I. [Google Scholar]
- Emina, J.; Beguy, D.; Zulu, E.M.; Ezeh, A.C.; Muindi, K.; Elung’ata, P.; Otsola, J.K.; Yé, Y. Monitoring of Health and Demographic Outcomes in Poor Urban Settlements: Evidence from the Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System. J. Urban Health 2011, 88, 200–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Otiso, K. Profile of Nairobi, Kenya; Berkshire Publishing Group: Nairobi, Kenya, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Awuor, V.; Odipo, G.; Agwanda, A. Age schedules of intra-provincial migration in Kenya. Afr. Popul. Stud. 2018, 32, 4356–4375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oucho, L. The Impact of Internal Migration of Youth in Developing Sustainable Counties in Kenya. In Migration, Remittances and Sustainable Development in Africa; Konte, M., Mbaye, L., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2021; pp. 62–81. [Google Scholar]
- LaRue, K.; Daum, T.; Mausch, K.; Harris, D. Who Wants to Farm? Answers Depend on How You Ask: A Case Study on Youth Aspirations in Kenya. Eur. J. Dev. Res. 2021, 33, 885–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakamura, S.; Avner, P. Spatial Distributions of Job Accessibility, Housing Rents, and Poverty in Nairobi, Kenya; Research Working Paper No. 8654; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Mugisha, F. School Enrollment Among Urban Non-Slum, Slum and Rural Children in Kenya: Is the Urban Advantage Eroding? Int. J. Educ. Dev. 2006, 26, 471–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Djurfeldt, A.A. Seasonality and farm/non-farm interactions in Western Kenya. J. Mod. Afr. Stud. 2012, 50, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramisch, J.J. “Never at ease”: Cellphones, multilocational households, and the metabolic rift in western Kenya. Agric. Hum. Values 2015, 33, 979–995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Djurfeldt, A.A.; Wambugu, S.K. In-kind transfers of maize, commercialization and household consumption in Kenya. J. East. Afr. Stud. 2011, 5, 447–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Migrant-Headed (Rural Born) | Non-Migrant-Headed (Nairobi-Born) | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristics of Household Heads | Frequency | % | Frequency | % | |
Total | 874 | 76.7 | 266 | 23.3 | |
Sex of Household Head | |||||
Male | 717 | 82.9 | 217 | 82.2 | 0.429 |
Female | 148 | 17.1 | 47 | 17.8 | |
Age of Household Head | |||||
16–24 | 64 | 7.4 | 32 | 12.1 | |
25–34 | 284 | 32.7 | 87 | 33.0 | |
35–44 | 285 | 32.8 | 88 | 33.3 | |
45–54 | 123 | 14.2 | 33 | 12.5 | |
55–64 | 50 | 5.8 | 13 | 4.9 | 0.108 |
65+ | 63 | 7.3 | 11 | 4.2 | |
Education Level of Household Head | <0.001 | ||||
None | 6 | 0.7 | 3 | 1.1 | |
Primary school | 151 | 17.8 | 20 | 7.7 | |
Secondary school | 348 | 41.0 | 82 | 31.4 | |
Higher | 343 | 40.4 | 156 | 59.8 | |
Employment Status of Household Head | 0.062 | ||||
Self-employed | 329 | 38.2 | 111 | 42.0 | |
Employed full-time | 353 | 41.0 | 113 | 42.8 | |
Employed part-time (inc casual) | 128 | 14.8 | 27 | 10.2 | |
Unemployed | 34 | 3.9 | 6 | 2.3 | |
Other | 18 | 2.1 | 7 | 2.7 | |
Health Status | 0.459 | ||||
Healthy | 810 | 94.3 | 246 | 92.8 | |
Unhealthy | 49 | 5.7 | 19 | 7.2 | |
Household Characteristics | 0.003 | ||||
Food security | |||||
Food secure | 220 | 25.3 | 91 | 34.6 | |
Food insecure | 651 | 74.7 | 172 | 65.4 | |
Household size | |||||
1 person | 151 | 17.3 | 48 | 18.1 | |
2–3 persons | 313 | 35.9 | 94 | 35.5 | |
4–5 persons | 299 | 34.3 | 84 | 31.7 | 0.719 |
6+ persons | 108 | 12.4 | 39 | 14.7 | |
Household Type | 0.755 | ||||
Female-centred | 140 | 16.1 | 48 | 18.0 | |
Male-centred | 172 | 19.8 | 58 | 21.8 | |
Nuclear | 491 | 56.5 | 139 | 52.3 | |
Extended | 63 | 7.2 | 18 | 6.8 | |
Other | 3 | 0.3 | 3 | 1.1 | |
Type of Dwelling | 0.057 | ||||
Formal | 753 | 93.4 | 241 | 93.4 | |
Informal | 84 | 6.6 | 17 | 6.6 | |
Main Source of HH Income | 0.020 | ||||
Formal wage work | 401 | 46.4 | 137 | 52.3 | |
Informal wage work | 265 | 30.6 | 53 | 20.2 | |
Self-employment (Informal) | 101 | 11.7 | 40 | 15.3 | |
Self-employment (formal) | 96 | 11.1 | 30 | 11.5 | |
Total Monthly HH Income | |||||
KES<= 10,000 | 136 | 26.0 | 29 | 18.4 | |
KES 10,001–20,000 | 137 | 26.2 | 22 | 13.9 | |
KES 20,001–30,000 | 66 | 12.6 | 24 | 15.2 | |
KES 30,001–40,000 | 36 | 6.9 | 6 | 3.8 | <0.001 |
KES 40,001–50,000 | 27 | 5.2 | 3 | 1.8 | |
>KES 50,000 | 121 | 23.1 | 74 | 46.8 | |
LPI Score | |||||
0–0.5 | 560 | 65.8 | 204 | 77.6 | |
0.51–1.00 | 176 | 20.7 | 39 | 14.8 | |
1.01–1.50 | 73 | 8.6 | 17 | 6.5 | 0.001 |
>1.5 | 42 | 4.9 | 3 | 1.1 | |
% of HH Income on Food | |||||
<20% | 220 | 43.4 | 75 | 49.3 | |
21–35% | 105 | 20.7 | 30 | 19.7 | |
36–50% | 90 | 17.8 | 26 | 17.1 | 0.648 |
>50% | 91 | 17.9 | 21 | 13.8 | |
Experienced Shocks | 0.002 | ||||
No | 300 | 34.7 | 117 | 45.2 | |
Yes | 564 | 64.3 | 142 | 54.8 | |
Economic shocks | 0.003 | ||||
No | 354 | 40.9 | 138 | 51.4 | |
Yes | 512 | 59.1 | 126 | 48.6 | |
Sociopolitical shocks | 0.141 | ||||
No | 712 | 82.2 | 221 | 85.3 | |
Yes | 154 | 17.8 | 38 | 14.7 | |
Biophysical shocks | 0.472 | ||||
No | 782 | 90.3 | 235 | 90.4 | |
Yes | 84 | 9.7 | 24 | 9.6 | |
Sent Remittances | 0.075 | ||||
Yes | 395 | 46.3 | 107 | 41.0 | |
No | 458 | 53.4 | 154 | 59.0 | |
Received Food Transfers from Rural Areas | |||||
Yes | 452 | 52.4 | 122 | 54.1 | |
No | 411 | 47.6 | 144 | 45.9 | 0.328 |
Frequency of Food Transfers from Rural Areas | |||||
Weekly | 4 | 1.0 | 5 | 1.1 | |
Monthly | 275 | 66.9 | 297 | 66.7 | |
Yearly | 131 | 31.9 | 142 | 31.9 | 0.435 |
Less than once per year | 1 | 0.2 | 1 | 0.2 |
No. of Households Receiving Transfers | % of Total Sample | % of Households Receiving Food Transfers | |
---|---|---|---|
Relatives in rural areas | 645 | 45.6 | 80.6 |
Friends in rural areas | 40 | 2.8 | 5.0 |
Relatives in other urban areas | 64 | 4.5 | 8.0 |
Friends in other urban areas | 51 | 3.6 | 6.4 |
Adjusted Models | Adjusted Models | Adjusted Models | |
---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
Household Head Demographics | |||
Migrant status of household head (ref = migrant) | |||
Non-migrant | 1.170 (0.875–1.565) | 1.008 (0.668–1.520) | 0.991 (0.652–1.505) |
Sex of household head (ref = Male) | |||
Female | 1.181 (0.853–1.634) | 1.064 (0.386–2.932) | 1.102 (0.399–3.043) |
Age of household head (ref = 16–24) | |||
25–34 | 1.148 (0.717–1.837) | 1.037 (0.548–1.963) | 1.064 (0.558–2.031) |
35–44 | 1.561 (0.970–2.513) * | 1.604 (0.813–3.164) | 1.648 (0.829–3.276) |
45–54 | 1.275 (0.749–2.171) | 1.198 (0.559–2.566) | 1.30 (0.601–2.810) |
55–64 | 0.939 (0.467–1.888) | 1.544 (0.569–4.188) | 1.531 (0.552–4.250) |
65+ | 1.338 (0.691–2.589) | 2.622 (0.762–9.018) | 2.893 (0.807–10.371) |
Education level of household head (ref = no education) | |||
Primary school | 0.666 (0.185–2.392) | 2.116 (0.197–22.753) | 2.389 (0.211–27.056) |
Secondary school | 0.946 (0.268–3.333) | 3.731 (0.355–39.261) | 3.962 (0.359–43.727) |
Higher | 1.441 (0.409–5.077) | 4.585 (0.433–48.596) | 4.915 (0.443–54.564) |
Employment status of household head (ref = self-employed) | |||
Employed full-time | 1.449 (1.109–1.894) *** | 1.214 (0.767–1.921) | 1.157 (0.727–1.841) |
Employed part-time | 1.470 (1.011–2.138) ** | 1.188 (0.680–2.075) | 1.159 (0.661–2.035) |
Unemployed | 0.815 (0.453–1.597) | 0.406 (0.156–1.056) * | 0.417 (0.160–1.088) * |
Household Characteristics | |||
Household size (ref = 1 person) | |||
2–3 persons | 0.950 (0.582–1.553) | 0.964 (0.587–1.584) | |
4–5 persons | 1.239 (0.752–2.043) | 1.230 (0.740–2.045) | |
6+ persons | 1.477 (0.849–2.569) | 1.457 (0.834–2.545) | |
Household type (ref = female-centred) | |||
Male-centred | 0.752 (0.260–2,177) | 0.753 (0.259–2.189) | |
Nuclear | 1.062 (0.380–2.968) | 1.081 (0.385–3.033) | |
Extended | 0.705 (0.214–2.319) | 0.640 (0.193–2.119) | |
Main source of household income (ref = formal wage work) | |||
Informal wage work | 0.967 (0.594–1.575) | 1.002 (0.613–1.637) | |
Self-employment (informal) | 0.586 (0.318–1.083) * | 0.591 (0.320–1.095) | |
Self-employment (formal) | 0.907 (0.477–1.722) | 0.871 (0.456–1.665) | |
Total household income (>KES50,000) | |||
KES ≤ 10,000 | 0.471 (0.234–0.948) ** | 0.477 (0.236–0.965) ** | |
KES 10,001–20,000 | 0.726 (0.405–1.300) | 0.731 (0.406–1.316) | |
KES 20,001–30,000 | 0.693 (0.381–1.260) | 0.687 (0.376–1.256) | |
KES 30,001–40,000 | 1.005 (0.474–2.133) | 0.991 (0.463–2.123) | |
KES 40,001–50,000 | 0.802 (0.352–1.828) | 0.782 (0.335–1.824) | |
Sends remittances (ref = no) | |||
Yes | 1.161 (0.832–1.620) | 1.140 (0.814–1.597) | |
Household Shocks/Emergencies | |||
Experienced shock (ref = no) | |||
Yes | 0.942 (0.405–2.193) | ||
Economic shocks (ref = no) | |||
Yes | 1.192 (0.550–2.557) | ||
Social shocks (ref = no) | |||
Yes | 1.014 (0.633–1.624 | ||
Biophysical shock (ref = no) | |||
Yes | 0.668 (0.383–1.163) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Onyango, E.O.; Crush, J.; Owuor, S. Migration, Rural–Urban Connectivity, and Food Remittances in Kenya. Environments 2021, 8, 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8090092
Onyango EO, Crush J, Owuor S. Migration, Rural–Urban Connectivity, and Food Remittances in Kenya. Environments. 2021; 8(9):92. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8090092
Chicago/Turabian StyleOnyango, Elizabeth Opiyo, Jonathan Crush, and Samuel Owuor. 2021. "Migration, Rural–Urban Connectivity, and Food Remittances in Kenya" Environments 8, no. 9: 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8090092