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Hemoparasites in Wild Birds: A Systematic Review of Their Ecology and Clinical Implications
1
Group of Rehabilitation of the Wild Fauna and Its Habitat, Wildlife Hospital of GREFA, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain
2
Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University Complutense of Madrid, Avenida Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
3
Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Animals 2025, 15(17), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172570
Submission received: 25 July 2025
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Revised: 18 August 2025
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Accepted: 29 August 2025
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Published: 1 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Wildlife Parasitology: Impacts on Health, Biodiversity, and Ecosystems)
Simple Summary
Blood parasites transmitted by insects can affect wild birds across the globe, but their impact on bird health is not well understood. This study reviewed existing scientific research to better understand these parasites and how they affect birds in nature. Although more research has been performed in recent years, it is mostly limited to certain regions and types of birds. There are still many challenges in identifying these parasites, especially when studying birds in the wild or at rescue centers. However, modern laboratory tools have helped scientists to learn more about the variety of parasites and how they interact with their bird hosts. This review points out the gaps in current knowledge and calls for more research to understand how these parasites affect bird populations, especially as environmental changes and new diseases continue to emerge. A deeper understanding of these parasites will help to protect bird health and biodiversity in a changing world.
Abstract
Hemoparasites are blood-borne parasites transmitted by vectors and are commonly found in wild birds worldwide. The most frequently reported genera include Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, and Trypanosoma, while filarial worms and other hemoparasites are less frequently reported. Despite their importance, knowledge of their effects on the health of wild birds remains limited. This systematic review summarizes all scientific findings on hemoparasites in wild birds, emphasizing their implications for host health. The literature reveals a high number of articles in this area in recent decades, reflecting a growing concern about hemoparasites in wildlife and their ecological impact. However, studies remain unevenly distributed across regions and bird taxa. Diagnostic limitations, particularly in fieldwork and wildlife rehabilitation, continue to present challenges for the accurate detection and monitoring of these parasites. Nevertheless, molecular tools have advanced our understanding of parasite diversity and host–parasite dynamics. Our work highlights key knowledge gaps and stresses the need for further research to improve the understanding of the role of hemoparasites in avian ecology, particularly concerning environmental change and emerging infectious diseases.
