Critical Systematic Review of Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases’ Prioritization in Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Overview of Zoonosis and Transboundary Animal Disease Prioritization in Africa
- Four countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) implemented both animal and zoonotic disease prioritization processes at the national level using the Phylum and the OHZDP tool;
- Six countries (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Mozambique) were concerned only by zoonotic disease prioritization at the national level using the OHZDP tool;
- Six countries (Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Rwanda, South-Sudan, Sudan) used the Phylum tool to prioritize TADs and zoonoses at the national level.
2.2. Prioritization Processes by Stakeholders
2.3. Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases Prioritization Criteria Chosen by Countries
- Severity of disease in humans (all countries),
- Availability of interventions (i.e., vaccines and/or medical treatment) (all countries),
- Economic, environmental, and/or social impact (9/10 countries),
- Presence of disease in country and/or region (8/10 countries),
- Epidemic/pandemic potential (and/or sustained transmission in humans) (7/10 countries).
2.4. Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases Ranking
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Region–Country–Locality | Year | Scale | Purpose of Prioritization | Methods | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia *, Kenya *, Mali, Mozambique, Tanzania *, Uganda * | 2015–2018 | National | To identify zoonotic diseases of greatest national concern for the concerned countries using equal input from representatives of human health, animal resources, and the environment | Semi quantitative, CDC OHZDP tool | [12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23] |
Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia *, Kenya *, Rwanda, South-Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania *, Uganda * | 2015–2016 | National | To identify, prioritize, and categorize the key transboundary animal diseases and zoonoses for public policy and animal health programs at the national level | Semi quantitative, OIE Phylum tool | [24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33] |
ECOWAS (Benin, Burkina Faso Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo | 2019 | Regional | To use a multisectoral, One Health approach to identify zoonotic diseases of greatest regional concern for ECOWAS (13 countries) | Semi quantitative, CDC OHZDP tool | [34] |
Ethiopia * (districts of Lalibela, Sekota, and Ziquala) | 2016–2018 | Local | To identify and prioritize primary cattle disease with the aid of participatory epidemiology tools (i.e., focus group discussions and questionnaires) | Participatory epidemiology tool | [35] |
West Africa: Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Cote D’Ivoire, Chad, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Sierra Leone. East Africa: Tanzania *, Kenya *, Uganda *, Ethiopia *, South Sudan, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia | 2019 | Regional | To prioritize animal health needs in East and West Africa and South Asia to identify diseases and syndromes that impact livestock keepers | -Systematic literature Review -Expert workshops -Veterinary practitioner survey | [36] |
Disease Ranking Criteria | No. Countries | Average Assigned Weight (Range) |
---|---|---|
Economic, environmental, and/or social impact | 9 | 0.170 (0.105–0.210) |
Economic impact only | 0 | |
Economic and/or social impact | 5 | |
Economic, environmental, and/or social impact | 4 | |
Availability of interventions (i.e., vaccines and/or medical treatment) | 10 | 0.174 (0.130–0.206) |
Epidemic/pandemic potential (and/or sustained transmission in humans) | 7 | 0.201 (0.170–0.220) |
Human-to-human transmission potential | 7 | |
History of previous outbreaks | 0 | |
Severity of disease in humans | 10 | 0.231 (0.180–0.350) |
Case-fatality rate | 8 | |
Morbidity and/or mortality rate | 2 | |
Presence of disease in country and/or region | 8 | 0.232 (0.170–0.330) |
Human and/or animal cases of illness reported in country and/or region | 6 | |
Human or animal disease prevalence and distribution in country | 2 | |
Laboratory capacity/diagnostic testing capacity | 2 | 0.151 (0.143–0.160) |
Existing multisectoral collaboration | 1 | 0.170 (NA) |
Bioterrorism potential | 3 | 0.102 (0.040–0.187) |
Mode of transmission | 1 | 0.200 (NA) |
Classification Criteria | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Economic Impact | Human Health Impact | Societal Impact | Environmental Impact | ||||
Justification | % | Justification | % | Justification | % | Justification | % |
Export and trade bans | 100 | Zoonotic disease | 100 | Zoonotic disease | 100 | Contamination of the environment | 100 |
High mortality | 80 | High cost of control and prevention for public health | 80 | Mortality in animals | 80 | Disposal of animals | 80 |
High morbidity | 80 | Export and trade bans | 60 | Mortality/case fatality in humans | 80 | Cleaning and disinfecting costs | 60 |
Hindering industry | 80 | Negative impact on tourism | 40 | Negative impact on pastoralists (poverty) | 80 | Risk for wildlife | 60 |
High cost of animal disease control and prevention | 60 | Number of reported cases | 40 | Impact on consumption habit | 60 | ||
High cost of control and prevention for public health | 60 | Mode of transmission | 40 | Morbidity in animals | 60 | ||
Cost if introduced | 40 | Mortality/case fatality | 40 | Production lost | 60 | ||
Highly contagious | 40 | Bioterrorism potential | 20 | Social stress | 60 | ||
Production lost | 40 | Effect on livelihood | 20 | ||||
Zoonotic disease | 40 | Endemic zoonoses | 20 | High cost of animal disease control and prevention | 40 | ||
Endemic disease | 20 | Food borne | 20 | High cost of control and prevention for public health | 40 | ||
Food borne | 20 | Highly contagious | 20 | Number of reported cases | 40 | ||
Negative impact on pastoralists (poverty) | 20 | Movement restriction | 20 | Bioterorrism potential | 40 | ||
Negative impact on tourism | 20 | Export and trade bans | 20 | ||||
Great public importance and implications | 60 | Trade bans | 80 | Control measures’ constraints | 100 | ||
High mortality | 60 | Endemic | 60 | Wildlife susceptibility | 60 | ||
Vaccine constraints | 60 | Highly contagious | 60 | Zoonotic disease | 40 | ||
Culling constraint | 20 | High cost of control and prevention for public health | 60 | Morbidity | 40 | ||
Food security issues (poultry meat and egg, beef, milk) | 20 | Human economic impacts | 60 | Mortality | 40 | ||
Testing constraints | 20 | Zoonotic disease | 60 | Consumption habit | 20 | ||
Local and international trade | 20 | Tourism | 40 | Increased production costs | 20 | ||
Movement restriction feasibility | 20 | Increased production costs | 20 | Environmental contamination | 20 | ||
Vector control feasibility | 20 | Control constraints | |||||
Zoonotic disease | 20 |
Country | OHZDP * Tool | Phylum Tool | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No Listed Diseases | No Prioritized Endemic Diseases [A] | No of Prioritized Exotic Diseases [B] | Total [A] + [B] | No Listed Diseases | No Prioritized Endemic Diseases [C] | No Prioritized Exotic Diseases [D] | Total [C] + [D] | |
Burkina Faso a | 41 | 4 | 1 | 5 | ||||
Burundi b | 23 | 10 | 6 | 16 | ||||
Cameroon a | 41 | 4 | 1 | 5 | ||||
Cote d’Ivoire a | 40 | 5 | 1 | 6 | ||||
Democratic Republic of Congo a | 11 | 6 | 0 | 6 | ||||
Djibouti b | 15 | 6 | 0 | 6 | ||||
Eritrea b | 16 | 7 | 4 | 11 | ||||
Ethiopia c | 43 | 5 | 0 | 5 | 16 | 7 | 3 | 10 |
Kenya c | 36 | 5 | 0 | 5 | 15 | 13 | 2 | 15 |
Mali a | 38 | 5 | 0 | 5 | ||||
Mozambique a | 48 | 6 | 1 | 7 | ||||
Rwanda b | 16 | 10 | 6 | 16 | ||||
South-Sudan b | 15 | 12 | 3 | 15 | ||||
Sudan b | 11 | 6 | 6 | 12 | ||||
Tanzania c | 39 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 16 | 7 | 2 | 9 |
Uganda c | 48 | 6 | 1 | 7 | 16 | 10 | 3 | 13 |
Average (S.E. **) | 38.5 (3.30) | 5.1 (0.23) | 0.6 (0.16) | 5.7 (0.26) | 15.9 (0.92) | 8.8 (0.80) | 3.5 (0.64) | 12.3 (1.05) |
Type | Disease or Health Condition | Causative Agent | No of Countries | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OHZDP Tool a | Phylum Tool b | |||||
Endemic | Exotic | Endemic | Exotic | |||
Zoonosis | Rabies | Virus | 10 | 7 | 1 | |
Anthrax | Bacteria | 7 | 1 | |||
Brucellosis | Bacteria | 7 | 8 | |||
Zoonotic influenza | Virus | 5 | 2 | 1 | 9 | |
Hemorrhagic fever (Ebola/Marbug) | Virus | 4 | 2 | 2 | ||
Rift Valley fever | Virus | 4 | 3 | 5 | ||
Trypanosomiasis | Parasite | 3 | 1 | 1 | ||
Zoonotic tuberculosis (M. bovis) | Bacteria | 3 | 6 | 1 | ||
Lassa | Virus | 2 | ||||
Salmonellosis | Bacteria | 2 | ||||
Arboviral diseases * | Virus | 1 | ||||
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever | Virus | 1 | ||||
Dengue | Virus | 1 | ||||
Echinococcosis | Parasite | 1 | ||||
Leptospirosis | Bacteria | 1 | ||||
Monkey pox | Virus | 1 | ||||
Plague | Virus | 1 | ||||
MERS-CoV ** | Virus | 1 | ||||
Swine erysipelas | 1 | |||||
TAD | Foot and mouth disease | Virus | 10 | 6 | ||
Peste des petits ruminants | Virus | 9 | 1 | |||
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia | Bacteria | 8 | 2 | |||
New Castle disease | Virus | 7 | ||||
Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia | Bacteria | 5 | ||||
African swine fever | Virus | 4 | 1 | |||
Lumpy skin disease | Virus | 4 | ||||
Sheep and goat pox | Virus | 3 | 1 | |||
East coast fever | Parasite | 2 | ||||
Porcine cysticercosis | Parasite | 1 | ||||
Classical swine fever | Virus | 1 | ||||
PRRS *** | Virus | 1 | ||||
Camel pox | Virus | 1 |
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Mpouam, S.E.; Mingoas, J.P.K.; Mouiche, M.M.M.; Kameni Feussom, J.M.; Saegerman, C. Critical Systematic Review of Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases’ Prioritization in Africa. Pathogens 2021, 10, 976. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080976
Mpouam SE, Mingoas JPK, Mouiche MMM, Kameni Feussom JM, Saegerman C. Critical Systematic Review of Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases’ Prioritization in Africa. Pathogens. 2021; 10(8):976. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080976
Chicago/Turabian StyleMpouam, Serge Eugene, Jean Pierre Kilekoung Mingoas, Mohamed Moctar Mouliom Mouiche, Jean Marc Kameni Feussom, and Claude Saegerman. 2021. "Critical Systematic Review of Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases’ Prioritization in Africa" Pathogens 10, no. 8: 976. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080976