Understanding Child Outcomes within a Multiple Risk Model: Examining Parental Incarceration
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Children with an Incarcerated Parent
1.2. Role of Other Risk Factors
1.2.1. Poverty
1.2.2. Parental Substance Use
1.2.3. Parental Mental Illness
1.3. A Multiple Risk Model
1.4. Child Outcomes
1.4.1. School failure
1.4.2. Emotional/Behavioral Difficulties
1.4.3. Criminal Behavior/Being Arrested
1.4.4. Drug and Alcohol Use
1.5. Multivariate Probit Regression
2. Methods
2.1. Research Design
2.2. Sample: The Children at Risk Program (CAR)
2.3. Measures and Constructs
2.3.1. Independent Variables (Risks)
2.3.2. Dependent Variables (Outcomes)
3. Results
3.1. Demographics
3.2. Regression Results
3.3. Effects and Predicted Outcome Probabilities
3.4. Risk Index Analysis
4. Discussion
4.1. Primary Risk Factors Examined
4.2. Implications for Policy
4.3. Limitations of the Study
5. Conclusions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Correlation Table—Dependent Variables | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
School Failure | Criminal Behavior | Arrested | Behavioral Difficulty | Emotional Difficulty | Alcohol Use | Drug Use | |
School Failure | 1.0000 *** | ||||||
Criminal Behavior | 0.1052 *** | 1.0000 | |||||
Arrested | 0.1046 + | 0.2203 *** | 1.0000 | ||||
Behavior Difficulty | 0.0496 *** | 0.2895 *** | 0.1485 *** | 1.0000 | |||
Emotional Difficulty | 0.1276 *** | 0.0801 *** | 0.0069 | 0.1119 *** | 1.0000 | ||
Alcohol Use | 0.0718 ** | 0.3520 *** | 0.1877 *** | 0.2307 *** | 0.0674 ** | 1.0000 | |
Drug Use | 0.0653 * | 0.3246 *** | 0.1438 *** | 0.1988 *** | 0.0812 *** | 0.7213 *** | 1.0000 |
Descriptive Statistics for Primary Variables of Interest | |
---|---|
Variables | Percentage |
Independent Variables | |
Parental Mental Illness | 13.72% |
Parental Substance Use | 11.58% |
Parental Incarceration | 17.66% |
Poverty | 71.60% |
Dependent Variables | |
School Failure | 7.16% |
Criminal Behavior | 41.17% |
Arrested | 8.11% |
Behavioral Difficulty | 42.60% |
Emotional Difficulty | 66.59% |
Alcohol Use | 29.83% |
Drug Use | 44.99% |
Correlation Table—Independent Variables (Risk Factors) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Parental Mental Illness | Parental Substance Use | Parental Incarceration | Poverty | |
Parental Mental Illness | 1.0000 | |||
Parental Substance Use | 0.1742 *** | 1.0000 | ||
Parental Incarceration | 0.0009 | 0.1416 *** | 1.0000 | |
Poverty | −0.0108 | -0.0009 | 0.0526 + | 1.0000 |
Dependent Variables | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
School Failure | Crime | Arrested | Behavioral | Emotional | Alcohol | Drugs | |
IV | |||||||
Parental Mental Illness | 0.3552 ** | 0.2124 + | 0.5849 *** | 0.3237 ** | 0.0415 | 0.1654 | 0.0569 |
(0.1730) | (0.1291) | (0.1571) | (0.1269) | (0.1322) | (0.1304) | (0.1250) | |
Parental Substance Use | 0.0132 | 0.4345 *** | 0.2532 + | −0.0201 | −0.1430 | 0.1396 | 0.1440 |
(0.2093) | (0.1426) | (0.1764) | (0.1401) | (0.1412) | (0.1422) | (0.1338) | |
Parental Incarceration | −0.1381 | 0.3806 *** | 0.4417 *** | 0.1943 * | 0.0351 | 0.2087 * | 0.3076 *** |
(0.1847) | (0.1172) | (0.1513) | (0.1147) | (0.1185) | (0.1190) | (0.1103) | |
Poverty | 0.2381 | −0.1054 | −0.0010 | −0.0578 | 0.1635 * | −0.2563 *** | −0.1973 ** |
(0.1570) | (0.0974) | (0.1432) | (0.0963) | (0.0978) | (0.0982) | (0.0912) | |
Constant | −1.6825 *** | −0.2917 *** | −1.6483 *** | −0.2243 ** | 0.3177 *** | −0.4197 *** | −0.0086 |
(0.1439) | (0.0867) | (0.1333) | (0.0857) | (0.0865) | −0.0861) | (0.0820) |
School Failure | Criminal Behaviors | |||||||
Primary Risk | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks |
Parental Mental Illness | 4.6% | 11.2% | 9.3% | 5.8% | 38.2% | 74.2% | 46.1% | 67.3% |
Parental Substance Use | 4.6% | 11.2% | 55.9% | 58.0% | ||||
Parental Incarceration | 3.5% | 13.9% | 53.6% | 60.2% | ||||
Poverty | 7.4% | 7.3% | 34.7% | 77.1% | ||||
Being Arrested | Behavioral Difficulties | |||||||
Primary Risk | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks |
Parental Mental Illness | 4.8% | 37.2% | 14.0% | 18.0% | 40.6% | 59.9% | 53.5% | 47.0% |
Parental Substance Use | 8.6% | 26.3% | 40.8% | 59.7% | ||||
Parental Incarceration | 10.7% | 22.6% | 48.2% | 52.3% | ||||
Poverty | 5.0% | 36.3% | 39.2% | 61.3% | ||||
Emotional Difficulties | Alcohol Use | |||||||
Primary Risk | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks |
Parental Mental Illness | 62.2% | 66.8% | 63.5% | 65.6% | 33.1% | 44.6% | 38.9% | 38.5% |
Parental Substance Use | 57.6% | 71.0% | 40.0% | 37.4% | ||||
Parental Incarceration | 63.6% | 65.5% | 40.6% | 36.8% | ||||
Poverty | 68.6% | 60.3% | 24.9% | 54.1% | ||||
Drug Use | ||||||||
Primary Risk | No Risk | All Risks | Primary Risk | 3 Other Risks | ||||
Parental Mental Illness | 49.1% | 60.2% | 51.2% | 58.2% | ||||
Parental Substance Use | 54.0% | 55.4% | ||||||
Parental Incarceration | 61.0% | 48.3% | ||||||
Poverty | 41.4% | 67.4% |
Risk Index Score | Frequency | Percentage of Sample | Mean Score |
---|---|---|---|
0 | 161 | 19.01% | 1.148 (Standard Error = 0.0279) |
1 | 458 | 54.07% | |
2 | 177 | 20.90% | |
3 | 44 | 5.19% | |
4 | 7 | 0.83% |
Dependent Variables | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
School Failure | Crime | Arrested | Behavioral | Emotional | Alcohol | Drugs | |
IV | |||||||
Risk Index (0–4) | 0.1183 + | 0.1979 *** | 0.3059 *** | 0.0955 * | 0.0478 | 0.0357 | 0.0577 |
(0.0774) | (0.0549) | (0.0732) | (0.0536) | (0.0556) | (0.0556) | (0.0532) | |
Constant | −1.6068 *** | −0.4465 *** | −1.7947 *** | −0.2978 *** | −1.7317 *** | −0.5612 *** | −0.1354 * |
(0.1160) | (0.0768) | (0.1197) | (0.0755) | (0.1324) | (0.0786) | (0.0732) |
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Hyppolite, M.L. Understanding Child Outcomes within a Multiple Risk Model: Examining Parental Incarceration. Soc. Sci. 2017, 6, 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6030082
Hyppolite ML. Understanding Child Outcomes within a Multiple Risk Model: Examining Parental Incarceration. Social Sciences. 2017; 6(3):82. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6030082
Chicago/Turabian StyleHyppolite, Melody L. 2017. "Understanding Child Outcomes within a Multiple Risk Model: Examining Parental Incarceration" Social Sciences 6, no. 3: 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6030082