The Developmental Course of Parental Time Investments in Children from Infancy to Late Adolescence
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Parental Time with Children
3. Developmental Course of Parent-Child Time
3.1. Parent-Child Time in Early Childhood
3.2. Parent-Child Time in Middle Childhood
3.3. Parent-Child Time in Adolescence
3.4. Parent Gender Considerations
4. This Study
5. Methods
5.1. Participants
5.2. Measures
5.2.1. Dependent Variables: Parent-Child time
5.2.2. Primary Explanatory Variables: Child Age and Mother Status
5.2.3. Sociodemographic Characteristics and Timing Controls
5.3. Analytic Approach
6. Results
6.1. Descriptive Data Patterns on Parental Time with Children
6.2. Regression Analysis of Parental Time with Children
6.3. Birth Cohorts
7. Discussion
Limitations and Future Directions
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Activity Description | ATUS Activity Codes | |
---|---|---|
Total Time | Any time the parent spends with the focal child. | All activity codes |
One-on-one Time | Any time the parent spends with only the focal child and no other people | All activity codes |
Reading Time | Reading to or with focal child | 030102 |
Playing Time | Playing with household children not sports, arts and crafts, sports, talking with or listening to, attending children’s events | 030103-30106, 030110 |
Groups | N | Father Respondent | Mother Respondent |
---|---|---|---|
Child Age | |||
Age 0 | 6963 | 2974 | 3989 |
Age 1 | 7886 | 3327 | 4559 |
Age 2 | 8047 | 3442 | 4605 |
Age 3 | 8373 | 3534 | 4839 |
Age 4 | 8525 | 3557 | 4968 |
Age 5 | 8564 | 3607 | 4957 |
Age 6 | 8816 | 3670 | 5146 |
Age 7 | 8959 | 3759 | 5200 |
Age 8 | 8912 | 3723 | 5189 |
Age 9 | 9224 | 3880 | 5344 |
Age 10 | 8835 | 3761 | 5074 |
Age 11 | 8831 | 3766 | 5065 |
Age 12 | 8611 | 3540 | 5071 |
Age 13 | 8488 | 3627 | 4861 |
Age 14 | 8241 | 3447 | 4794 |
Age 15 | 6350 | 2785 | 3565 |
Age 16 | 5643 | 2482 | 3161 |
Age 17 | 5540 | 2461 | 3079 |
Age 18 | 3768 | 1580 | 2188 |
Fathers | Mothers | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | |
N = 62,922 | N = 85,654 | |||
Parental Time Investments (minuets per day) | ||||
Total time | 217.64 | 227.02 | 314.95 *** | 248.21 |
One-on-one time | 23.78 | 75.71 | 53.66 *** | 113.55 |
Reading time | 2.39 | 12.28 | 4.50 *** | 18.17 |
Playing time | 13.77 | 47.16 | 16.02 *** | 50.40 |
Total Time | One-on-One Time | Reading Time | Playing Time | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mother | 224.18 *** | 100.67 *** | 2.01 *** | 23.80 *** |
(7.73) | (4.17) | (0.43) | (2.07) | |
Child Age 0 (reference) | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Child Age 1 | 11.17 | 6.50 * | 1.18 ** | 14.77 *** |
(7.05) | (2.90) | (0.39) | (2.41) | |
Child Age 2 | 11.66 | 17.20 *** | 2.32 *** | 11.21 *** |
(6.81) | (3.02) | (0.40) | (2.33) | |
Child Age 3 | −2.46 | 18.28 *** | 2.38 *** | 7.94 *** |
(6.98) | (2.78) | (0.39) | (1.83) | |
Child Age 4 | −8.13 | 22.72 *** | 2.16 *** | 4.52 ** |
(6.86) | (2.84) | (0.37) | (1.75) | |
Child Age 5 | −17.29 * | 25.01 *** | 1.99 *** | 0.59 |
(7.08) | (2.85) | (0.38) | (1.75) | |
Child Age 6 | −23.73 *** | 24.56 *** | 2.10 *** | −0.65 |
(7.04) | (2.71) | (0.41) | (1.74) | |
Child Age 7 | −31.89 *** | 28.13 *** | 1.47 *** | −0.70 |
(7.14) | (2.76) | (0.38) | (1.76) | |
Child Age 8 | −31.58 *** | 32.16 *** | 1.50 *** | −3.78 * |
(7.24) | (2.97) | (0.41) | (1.71) | |
Child Age 9 | −43.79 *** | 31.79 *** | 0.60 | −5.32 ** |
(7.45) | (2.90) | (0.37) | (1.68) | |
Child Age 10 | −46.00 *** | 38.44 *** | 0.98 * | −3.09 |
(7.64) | (3.12) | (0.41) | (1.76) | |
Child Age 11 | −48.16 *** | 40.52 *** | 0.65 | −3.62 * |
(7.76) | (3.15) | (0.40) | (1.79) | |
Child Age 12 | −65.34 *** | 42.29 *** | 0.74 | −6.42 *** |
(8.14) | (3.39) | (0.42) | (1.76) | |
Child Age 13 | −79.63 *** | 41.12 *** | 0.50 | −6.28 *** |
(8.00) | (3.29) | (0.43) | (1.78) | |
Child Age 14 | −91.92 *** | 45.55 *** | 0.27 | −7.06 *** |
(8.34) | (3.51) | (0.42) | (1.81) | |
Child Age 15 | −93.28 *** | 49.50 *** | 0.52 | −7.23 *** |
(8.73) | (3.75) | (0.46) | (1.86) | |
Child Age 16 | −106.29 *** | 48.16 *** | 0.06 | −6.28 ** |
(9.01) | (3.85) | (0.44) | (1.94) | |
Child Age 17 | −127.27 *** | 45.37 *** | 0.39 | −6.36 ** |
(9.13) | (3.93) | (0.47) | (2.09) | |
Child Age 18 | −129.97 *** | 48.30 *** | 0.08 | −6.78 *** |
(10.40) | (4.36) | (0.48) | (2.03) | |
Mother * Child Age 1 | −57.48 *** | −33.36 *** | 1.24* | −3.34 |
(10.18) | (5.45) | (0.58) | (3.40) | |
Mother * Child Age 2 | −65.39 *** | −44.74 *** | 1.32* | −10.32 *** |
(9.76) | (5.47) | (0.57) | (3.09) | |
Mother * Child Age 3 | −75.37 *** | −57.56 *** | 2.04 *** | −10.02 *** |
(9.64) | (5.12) | (0.60) | (2.64) | |
Mother * Child Age 4 | −79.44 *** | −67.47 *** | 2.19 *** | −13.07 *** |
(9.46) | (5.04) | (0.58) | (2.58) | |
Mother * Child Age 5 | −110.10 *** | −77.33 *** | 1.52 ** | −16.10 *** |
(9.41) | (4.77) | (0.59) | (2.47) | |
Mother * Child Age 6 | −117.17 *** | −79.74 *** | 1.04 | −19.37 *** |
(9.34) | (4.74) | (0.57) | (2.42) | |
Mother * Child Age 7 | −117.71 *** | −84.78 *** | 2.12 *** | −20.31 *** |
(9.31) | (4.56) | (0.60) | (2.38) | |
Mother * Child Age 8 | −138.09 *** | −86.61 *** | 0.49 | −18.36 *** |
(9.19) | (4.64) | (0.60) | (2.37) | |
Mother * Child Age 9 | −131.48 *** | −81.45 *** | 1.31* | −17.61 *** |
(9.36) | (4.58) | (0.59) | (2.33) | |
Mother * Child Age 10 | −143.68 *** | −87.17 *** | −0.42 | −20.58 *** |
(9.30) | (4.60) | (0.53) | (2.32) | |
Mother * Child Age 11 | −152.46 *** | −86.96 *** | −0.03 | −21.46 *** |
(9.34) | (4.56) | (0.54) | (2.33) | |
Mother * Child Age 12 | −153.22 *** | −84.79 *** | −0.77 | −18.95 *** |
(9.47) | (4.73) | (0.53) | (2.28) | |
Mother * Child Age 13 | −162.29 *** | −86.07 *** | −0.87 | −18.64 *** |
(9.21) | (4.47) | (0.54) | (2.26) | |
Mother * Child Age 14 | −165.99 *** | −87.01 *** | −0.95 | −18.87 *** |
(9.24) | (4.57) | (0.51) | (2.23) | |
Mother * Child Age 15 | −162.91 *** | −83.84 *** | −1.02 | −19.15 *** |
(9.85) | (4.98) | (0.59) | (2.25) | |
Mother * Child Age 16 | −189.45 *** | −88.08 *** | −0.98 | −20.62 *** |
(9.68) | (4.87) | (0.50) | (2.27) | |
Mother * Child Age 17 | −181.55 *** | −84.89 *** | −1.28 * | −20.83 *** |
(9.51) | (4.81) | (0.54) | (2.25) | |
Mother * Child Age 18 | −202.70 *** | −90.56 *** | −1.23 * | −22.86 *** |
(10.70) | (5.30) | (0.51) | (2.17) | |
Hispanic Parent | 5.05 | −4.99 *** | −1.90 *** | −5.98 *** |
(2.93) | (0.96) | (0.18) | (0.74) | |
Black, non-Hispanic Parent | −41.71 *** | −1.58 | −1.04 *** | −8.79 *** |
(3.27) | (1.21) | (0.22) | (0.78) | |
Asian Parent | 1.97 | −1.97 | 0.55 | −2.22 * |
(4.11) | (1.46) | (0.34) | (0.97) | |
Foreign born Parent | 15.31 ** | 1.85 | 0.48 | 1.71 |
(4.66) | (1.56) | (0.29) | (0.96) | |
Youngest Child | −18.84 *** | 36.42 *** | −0.04 | −4.69 *** |
(2.06) | (0.91) | (0.13) | (0.50) | |
Middle Child | −11.49 *** | 12.78 *** | −0.32 ** | −0.47 |
(1.73) | (0.75) | (0.10) | (0.40) | |
Parent is married | 64.39 *** | −7.93 *** | 1.16 *** | 6.16 *** |
(2.84) | (1.03) | (0.17) | (0.70) | |
Age of oldest household parent | −0.04 | 0.38 *** | 0.08 *** | 0.12 ** |
(0.16) | (0.06) | (0.01) | (0.04) | |
No high school degree | 9.20 * | −4.53 ** | −0.84 ** | −2.72 * |
(4.58) | (1.48) | (0.30) | (1.11) | |
High school degree | −3.57 | −2.53 ** | −1.21 *** | −2.97 *** |
(2.72) | (0.94) | (0.17) | (0.70) | |
One household parent works full time | −37.64 *** | −5.52 *** | −0.32 | −2.71 ** |
(4.09) | (1.52) | (0.29) | (1.03) | |
Dual earner household | −35.28 *** | −8.42 *** | −1.00 *** | −5.70 *** |
(2.13) | (0.68) | (0.15) | (0.54) | |
Household income | −0.00 *** | −0.00 *** | 0.00 *** | 0.00 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Number of children in family | 4.70 ** | −13.91 *** | 0.28 * | −0.38 |
(1.47) | (0.47) | (0.13) | (0.31) | |
Average age of children in family | −2.38 *** | −3.48 *** | −0.21 *** | −1.76 *** |
(0.45) | (0.21) | (0.03) | (0.10) | |
St. Dev. Of age of children in family | −1.03 | −0.16 | −0.23 *** | −0.88 *** |
(0.62) | (0.21) | (0.04) | (0.15) | |
Percent female of children in family | 2.83 | 0.68 | 0.04 | −2.30 *** |
(2.38) | (1.00) | (0.16) | (0.63) | |
Mean (Fathers of Child Age 0) | 274.00 *** | 34.51 *** | 2.28 *** | 27.60 *** |
(4.41) | (1.63) | (0.24) | (1.17) |
References
- Alderman, Harold, and Elizabeth M. King. 1998. Gender differences in parental investment in education. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 9: 453–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Åman-Back, Susanna, and Kaj Björkqvist. 2004. Parents’ assessments of how much time they spend with their children at different ages. Psychological Reports 94: 1025–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ascigil, Esra, Britney M. Wardecker, William J. Chopik, and Robin S. Edelstein. 2020. Division of baby care in heterosexual and lesbian parents: Expectations versus reality. Journal of Marriage and Family 83: 584–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Attanasio, Orazio, Sarah Cattan, Emla Fitzsimons, Costas Meghir, and Marta Rubio-Codina. 2020. Estimating the production function for human capital: Results from a randomized controlled trial in Colombia. American Economic Review 110: 48–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barret, Jennifer, and Alison S. Fleming. 2011. Annual research review: All mothers are not created equal: Neural and psychobiological perspectives on mother and the importance of individual differences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 52: 368–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Becker, Gary S., and Nigel Tomes. 1976. Child endowments and the quantity and quality of children. Journal of Political Economy 84: 143–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Breining, Sanni, Joseph Doyle, David N. Figlio, Krzysztof Karbownik, and Jeffery Roth. 2020. Birth Order and Delinquency: Evidence from Denmark and Florida. Journal of Labor Economics 38: 95–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Britto, Pia Rebello, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Terry M. Griffin. 2006. Maternal reading and teaching patterns: Associations with school readiness in low-income African American families. Reading Research Quarterly 41: 68–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bronfenbrenner, Urie. 1986. Ecology of the family as context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology 22: 723–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bryant, Brenda K., Anisa M. Zvonkovic, and Paula Reynolds. 2006. Parenting in relation to child and adolescent vocational development. Journal of Vocational Behavior 69: 149–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2019. American Time Use Survey User’s Guide: Understanding ATUS 2003 to 2018. June. Available online: https://www.atusdata.org/atus/resources/linked_docs/atususersguide.pdf (accessed on 2 November 2020).
- Catsambis, Sophia. 2001. Expanding knowledge of parental involvement in children’s secondary education: Connections with high school seniors’ academic success. Social Psychology of Education 5: 149–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cha, Yun, and Hyunjoon Park. 2020. Converging educational differences in parents’ time use in developmental child care. Journal of Marriage and Family 83: 769–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coll, Cyntia Garcia, and Laura A. Szalacha. 2004. The multiple contexts of middle childhood. The Future of Children 14: 80–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crouter, Ann C., and M. Sue Crowley. 1990. School-age children’s time alone with fathers in single- and dual-earner families: Implications for the father-child relationship. Journal of Early Adolescence 10: 296–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cunha, Flavio, and James Heckman. 2007. The technology of skill formation. American Economic Review 97: 31–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Del Boca, Daniela, Christopher Flinn, and Matthew Wiswall. 2014. Household choices and child development. The Review of Economic Studies 81: 137–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dubas, Judith Semon, and Jan R. M. Gerris. 2002. Longitudinal changes in the time parents spend in activities with their adolescent children as a function of child age, pubertal status, and gender. Journal of Family Psychology 16: 415–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eccles, Jacquelynne S. 1999. The development of children ages 6 to 14. Future of Children 9: 30–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farrant, Brad M., and Stephen R. Zubrick. 2013. Parent–child book reading across early childhood and child vocabulary in the early school years: Findings from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. First Language 33: 280–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fletcher, Paul. 1984. Child’s talk: Learning to use language [Review of the book Child’s talk: Learning to use language, by J. Bruner]. Child Language Teaching & Therapy 1: 111–14. [Google Scholar]
- Flouri, Eirini, and Ann Buchanan. 2004. Early father’s and mother’s involvement and child’s later educational outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 141–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gertler, Paul, James Heckman, Rodrigo Pinto, Arianna Zanolini, Christel Vermeersch, Susan Walker, Susan M. Chang, and Sally Grantham-McGregor. 2014. Labor market returns to an early childhood stimulation intervention in Jamaica. Science 344: 998–1001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gibby, Ashley Larsen, Jocelyn S. Wikle, and Kevin Thomas. 2021. Adoption Status and Parental Investments: A Within-sibling Approach. Journal of Child and Family Studies 30: 1776–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ginsburg, Kenneth R. 2007. The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics 119: 182–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gould, Eric D., Avi Simhon, and Bruce A. Weinberg. 2020. Does parent quality matter? Evidence on the transmission of human capital using variation in parental influence from death, divorce, and family size. Journal of Labor Economics 38: 569–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hango, Darcy. 2007. Parental investment in childhood and educational qualifications: Can greater parental involvement mediate the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage? Social Science Research 36: 1371–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harrell, Frank E. 2015. Multivariable modeling strategies. In Regression Modeling Strategies, 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer. [Google Scholar]
- Harris, Kathleen Mullan, Frank F. Furstenberg, and Jeremy K. Marmer. 1998. Parental involvement with adolescents in intact families: Influence of fathers over the life course. Demography 35: 201–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hodge, Camilla, and Jocelyn S. Wikle. 2021. Parent-Child Leisure and Parent Affect: The Role of Family Structure. Journal of Family Issues 43: 1090–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hofferth, Sandra L., Sarah M. Flood, Matthew Sobek, and Daniel Backman. 2020. American Time Use Survey Data Extract Builder. Version 2.8 [Dataset]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, IPUMS. [Google Scholar]
- Honig, Alice Sterling. 1981. What are the needs of infants? Young Children 37: 3–10. [Google Scholar]
- Hsin, Amy, and Christina Felfe. 2014. When does time matter? Maternal employment, children’s time with parents, and child development. Demography 51: 1867–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kahneman, Daniel, Alan B. Krueger, David A. Schkade, Norbert Schwarz, and Arthur A. Stone. 2004. A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day reconstruction method. Science 306: 1776–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalil, Ariel, Rebecca Ryan, and Michael Corey. 2012. Diverging destinies: Maternal education and the developmental gradient in time with children. Demography 49: 1361–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Keown, Louise J., and Melanie Palmer. 2014. Comparisons between paternal and maternal involvement with sons: Early to middle childhood. Early Child Development & Care 184: 99–117. [Google Scholar]
- Lam, Chun Bun, Susan M. McHale, and Ann C. Crouter. 2012. Parent-child shared time from middle childhood to late adolescence: Developmental course and adjustment correlates. Child Development 83: 2089–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lankes, Jane. 2022. Negotiating ‘impossible’ ideals: Latent classes of intensive mothering in the United States. SocArXiv. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larson, Reed, and Maryse H. Richards. 1991. Daily companionship in late childhood and early adolescence: Changing developmental contexts. Child Development 62: 284–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larson, Reed W., Maryse H. Richards, Giovanni Moneta, Grayson Holmbeck, and Elena Duckett. 1996. Changes in adolescents’ daily interactions with their families from ages 10 to 18: Disengagement and transformation. Developmental Psychology 32: 744–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lundberg, Shelly, Sabrina Wulff Pabilonia, and Jennifer Ward-Batts. 2007. Time Allocation of Parents and Investments in Sons and Daughters. Berlin: Researchgate. [Google Scholar]
- Ma, Xin, Jianping Shen, Huilan Y. Krenn, Shanshan Hu, and Jing Yuan. 2015. A meta-analysis of the relationship between learning outcomes and parental involvement during early childhood education and early elementary education. Education Psychology Review 28: 771–801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mammen, Kristin. 2011. Fathers’ time investments in children: Do sons get more? Journal of Population Economics 24: 839–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melton, Karen K. 2017. Family activity model: Crossroads of activity environment and family interactions in family leisure. Leisure Sciences 39: 457–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milkie, Melissa A., Kei M. Nomaguchi, and Kathleen E. Denny. 2015. Does the amount of time mothers spend with children or adolescents matter? Journal of Marriage and Family 77: 355–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milteer, Regina M., Kenneth R. Ginsburg, and Council on Communications and Media and Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. 2012. The importance of play in prompting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bond: Focus on children in poverty. Pediatrics 129: 204–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Monna, Berenice, and Anne H. Gauthier. 2008. A review of the literature on the social and economic determinants of parental time. Journal of Family and Economic Issues 29: 634–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moroni, Gloria, Cheti Nicoletti, and Emma Tominey. 2019. Child Socio-Emotional Skills: The Role of Parental Inputs. IZA Discussion Paper No. 12432. Bonn: Institute of Labor Economics (IZA). Available online: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3415778 (accessed on 31 March 2020).
- Offer, Daniel, and Judith Baskin Offer. 1975. From Teenage to Young Manhood: A Psychological Study. New York: Basic Books. [Google Scholar]
- Offer, Shira. 2013. Family time activities and adolescents’ emotional well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family 75: 26–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parke, Ross D. 2013. Gender differences and similarities in parental behavior. In Gender and Parenthood: Biological and Social Scientific Perspectives. Edited by W. Bradford Wilcox and Kathleen Kovner Kline. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 120–63. [Google Scholar]
- Price, Joseph. 2008. Parent-child quality time: Does birth order matter? Journal of Human Resources 43: 240–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Price, Joseph, and Ariel Kalil. 2019. The effect of mother–child reading time on children’s reading skills: Evidence from natural within-family variation. Child Development 90: e688–e702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Price, Joseph, Luke Rodgers, and Jocelyn S. Wikle. 2021. Dinner Timing and Human Capital Investments in Children. Review of Economics of the Household 19: 1047–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sayer, Liana C., Suzanne M. Bianchi, and John P. Robinson. 2004. Are parents investing less in children? Trends in mothers’ and fathers’ time with children. American Journal of Sociology 110: 1–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schober, Michael F., and Frederick G. Conrad. 1997. Does conversational interviewing reduce survey measurement error? Public Opinion Quarterly 61: 576–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shumow, Lee, Elena Lyutykh, and Jennifer A. Schmidt. 2011. Predictors and outcomes of parental involvement with high school students in science. The School of Community Journal 21: 81–98. [Google Scholar]
- Silver, Cynthia. 2000. Being there: The time dual-earner couples spend with their children. Canadian Social Trends 57: 26–30. [Google Scholar]
- Steinberg, Laurence. 2020. Adolescence, 12th ed. New York: McGraw Hill. [Google Scholar]
- Stewart, Jay. 2013. Tobit or not Tobit? Journal of Economic and Social Measurement 38: 263–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tamis-LeMonda, Catherine S., Jacqueline D. Shannon, Natasha J. Cabrera, and Michael E. Lamb. 2004. Fathers and mothers at play with their 2- and 3-year-olds: Contributions to language and cognitive development. Child Development 75: 1806–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vukelich, Carol. 1984. Parents’ role in the reading process: A review of practical suggestions and ways to communicate with parents. The Reading Teacher 37: 472–77. [Google Scholar]
- Walker, Susan P., Susan M. Chang, Christine A. Powell, and Sally M. Grantham-McGregor. 2005. Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: Prospective cohort study. Lancet 366: 1804–07. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wikle, Jocelyn S., and Alex Hoagland. 2020. Adolescent Interactions with Family and Emotions During Interactions: Variation by Family Structure. Journal of Family Psychology 34: 544–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wikle, Jocelyn S., and Camilla J. Hodge. 2022. Free Public Lands Admission for Children and Spillovers in Family Recreation. Journal of Child and Family Studies. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wikle, Jocelyn S., Elizabeth Ackert, and Alexander C. Jensen. 2019. Companionship patterns and emotional states during social interactions for adolescents with and without siblings. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48: 2190–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yeung, W. Jean, John F. Sandberg, Pamela E. Davis-Kean, and Sandra L. Hofferth. 2001. Children’s time with fathers in intact families. Journal of Marriage and Family 63: 136–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zabriskie, Ramon B., and Bryan P. McCormick. 2001. The influences of family leisure patterns on perceptions of family functioning. Family Relations 50: 281–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zick, Cathleen D., and W. Keith Bryant. 1996. A new look at parents’ time spent in child care: Primary and secondary time use. Social Science Research 25: 260–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zick, Cathleen D., W. Keith Bryant, and Eva Österbacka. 2001. Mother’s employment, parental involvement, and the implications for children’s behavior. Social Science Research 30: 25–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Fathers | Mothers | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | S.D. | Mean | S.D. | |
N = 62,922 | N = 85,654 | |||
Characteristics of the Focal Child | ||||
Female | 0.49 | 0.50 | 0.49 | 0.50 |
Age | 8.85 | 5.35 | 8.74 *** | 5.37 |
Race/Ethnicity | ||||
White | 0.62 | 0.49 | 0.57 *** | 0.50 |
Hispanic | 0.22 | 0.42 | 0.24 *** | 0.42 |
Black | 0.09 | 0.28 | 0.13 *** | 0.34 |
Other | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.13 |
Foreign born | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.04 * | 0.19 |
The oldest child | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.53 * | 0.50 |
Middle child | 0.16 | 0.37 | 0.16 | 0.37 |
The youngest child | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.53 * | 0.50 |
Birth year a | 2002.10 | 7.17 | 2002.22 ** | 7.21 |
Characteristics of the Parent and Household | ||||
Two-parent household | 0.86 | 0.35 | 0.73 *** | 0.44 |
Age of the oldest parent | 40.56 | 8.35 | 39.58 *** | 8.79 |
Highest educational attainment of parents | ||||
No parent graduated from high school | 0.09 | 0.29 | 0.11 *** | 0.31 |
At least one household parent graduated high school | 0.21 | 0.41 | 0.23 *** | 0.42 |
At least one household parent attended some college | 0.70 | 0.46 | 0.67 *** | 0.47 |
At least one household parent works full time | 0.94 | 0.24 | 0.88 *** | 0.33 |
Dual earner household | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0.45 *** | 0.50 |
Family income | 83,529.45 | 49,177.78 | 76,822.88 *** | 49,827.96 |
Number of household children | 2.42 | 1.17 | 2.40 *** | 1.18 |
The average age of household children | 8.85 | 4.73 | 8.74 *** | 4.75 |
S.D. of the age of household children | 2.43 | 1.99 | 2.42 | 2.01 |
Percent female of household children | 0.49 | 0.36 | 0.49 | 0.36 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Wikle, J.; Cullen, C. The Developmental Course of Parental Time Investments in Children from Infancy to Late Adolescence. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020092
Wikle J, Cullen C. The Developmental Course of Parental Time Investments in Children from Infancy to Late Adolescence. Social Sciences. 2023; 12(2):92. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020092
Chicago/Turabian StyleWikle, Jocelyn, and Clara Cullen. 2023. "The Developmental Course of Parental Time Investments in Children from Infancy to Late Adolescence" Social Sciences 12, no. 2: 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020092
APA StyleWikle, J., & Cullen, C. (2023). The Developmental Course of Parental Time Investments in Children from Infancy to Late Adolescence. Social Sciences, 12(2), 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020092