Effects of Climate Change on Rendered Façades: Expected Degradation in a Progressively Warmer and Drier Climate—A Review Based on the Literature
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Climate Change Projections
2.1. Mediterranean Region and Southern Europe
2.2. Portugal: A Hot and Dry Summer Temperate Climate
3. Climate-Induced Degradation of Rendered Façades
3.1. Characteristics of the Cladding
3.2. Degradation Mechanisms and Climate Agents
3.2.1. Stains
Stains | Degradation Mechanisms | ||
---|---|---|---|
Actions | Climate Agents | Favourable Factors or Conditions | |
Dirt | Dirt or pollution particles: | ||
- transport and deposition | wind wind-rain action | - wind strength - wind direction towards the façade | |
- adherence | wind-rain action temperature | - wind direction towards the façade - wet render/moist surface - long moisture cycle - cold temperature - lack of sun exposure | |
- washing | wind-rain action | - wind direction towards the façade - water runoff | |
- accumulation | wind wind-rain action temperature | - long and consecutive moisture cycles (implied continuation of “transport and deposition”) | |
Biological growth | Living organisms: | ||
- transport and deposition | wind wind-rain action | - wind strength - wind direction towards the façade | |
- adherence | wind-rain action temperature | - wind direction towards the façade - wet render/moist surface - long moisture cycle - cold temperature - lack of sun exposure | |
- growth | |||
- accumulation | wind wind-rain action temperature | - long and consecutive moisture cycles (implied continuation of “transport and deposition”) | |
Efflorescence | Soluble salts (existing in the render or penetrating it in rainwater): | ||
- dissolution | wind-rain action humidity | - wind direction towards the façade - wet render / water in the pores - high relative humidity | |
- crystallization and deposition | wind humidity temperature | - fast drying process of the wet render - water migration towards the surface - evaporation of water in the surface - wind flow - relative humidity decrease - temperature increase | |
Discolouration | Chemical components (existing in the render or in the coating): | ||
- leaching | wind-rain action | - wind direction towards the façade | |
- reaction to pollutants | wind wind-rain action temperature | (implied “adherence”and “transport and deposition” subsections) | |
- photodegradation | solar radiation | - significant exposure to UV radiation |
3.2.2. Cracks
Cracks | Degradation Mechanisms | ||
---|---|---|---|
Actions | Climate Agents | Favourable Factors or Conditions | |
Mapped cracking | Fresh render’s curing process: | ||
- shrinkage | wind humidity temperature | - high wind velocity - low relative humidity - high temperature - excessive speed of evaporation of water in the mix | |
Hardened render: | |||
- shrinkage by carbonation | wind-rain action humidity temperature | - wet render/water in the pores, unless if excessively or constantly - relative humidity around 40–60% [78] - high temperature | |
Hardened render: | |||
- expansion by alkali-aggregate reaction | wind-rain action humidity temperature | - wet render/water in the pores - internal relative humidity >80% [79] - swelling of alkali-silica gel - high temperature | |
Render level cracking | Hardened render: | ||
- expansion | temperature | - considerable exposure to UV radiation - warm temperature | |
- shrinkage by thermal shock | wind-rain action temperature | - wet render - cold temperature - temperature variation and gradient within the render | |
Oriented cracking | Hardened render: | ||
- movement of hygrothermal nature | temperature | - temperature and damp variations in the render and/or in related building components; differential hygrothermal behaviours - dimensional change - expansion with warm temperature - shrinkage with cold temperature (implied influence of “wind-rain”) | |
Por level cracking | Soluble salts (existing in the render or penetrating it in rainwater): | ||
- transport and deposition (of salts in air pollution) | wind wind-rain action humidity | - wind strength - wind direction towards the façade - high relative humidity | |
- dissolution | wind-rain action humidity | - wind direction towards the façade - wet render/water in the pores - high relative humidity | |
- crystallization and deposition | wind humidity temperature | - fast drying process of the wet render - water migration in the porous structure - evaporation of water in the pores - relative humidity decrease - temperature increase | |
Water in the render: | |||
- freeze-thaw | temperature | - wet render/water in the pores - transformation of liquid water into ice crystals and subsequent melting |
3.2.3. Loss of Adhesion
Loss of Adhesion | Degradation Mechanisms | ||
---|---|---|---|
Actions | Climate Agents | Favourable Factors or Conditions | |
Crumbling and spalling | Soluble salts (existing in the render or penetrating it in rainwater): | ||
- transport and deposition (of salts in air pollution and sea spray) | wind wind-rain action humidity temperature | - high wind velocity - wind direction towards the façade - high relative humidity - flooding (for capillarity driven salts) | |
- dissolution | wind-rain action humidity | - wind direction towards the façade - wet render/water in the pores - high relative humidity | |
- crystallization and deposition | wind humidity temperature | - fast drying process of the wet render - water migration in the porous structure - evaporation of water in the pores - relative humidity decrease - temperature increase | |
Hardened render: | |||
- expansion by alkali-aggregate reaction | wind-rain action humidity temperature | - wet render/water in the pores - internal relative humidity >80–85% [90] - swelling of alkali-silica gel - high temperature | |
Water in the render: | |||
- freeze-thaw | temperature | - wet render/water in the pores - transformation of liquid water into ice crystals and subsequent melting | |
Fine particles: | |||
- washing | wind wind-rain action | - wind direction towards the façade | |
Prior triggering defects: cracks and detachment of the external layer of the render | |||
Bulging | Hardened render: | ||
- wetting | wind-rain action | - wind direction towards the façade | |
- deformation of hygrothermal nature | temperature | - wet render/damp in the pores - temperature and damp variations - dimensional expansion - high temperature - weight increase by damp in the pores | |
The degradation mechanism based on the dissolution and crystallization of salts is applicable | |||
Prior triggering defects: cracks | |||
Detachment | The degradation mechanism based on the dissolution and crystallization of salts, between render layers or on the interface render/substrate, is applicable | ||
The degradation mechanism based on the hardened render’s deformation of hygrothermal nature is applicable | |||
Prior triggering defects: bulging and cracks |
4. Expected Degradation of Rendered Façades in a Progressively Warmer and Drier Climate—Discussion
4.1. Stains
4.2. Cracks
4.3. Loss of Adhesion
4.4. Potential Influencing Aspects Not Detailed in the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Climate Agent | General Projections | Main Reference |
---|---|---|
Temperature | Rise | [31] |
Heat waves intensification | ||
Precipitation | Decline | [37] |
Rainfall events intensification | ||
Wind (WED) | Decline | [39] |
Defects | Climate Agents’ Projections | Expectations | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Stains | Dirt | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ temperature▲ | Dirt and pollution particles ↓ less transport and deposition ↓ less adherence due to reduction of moisture from rainwater on the surface shorter moisture cycles ↓ less washing due to reduction of water runoff ↓ less accumulation due to shorter and less consecutive moisture cycles | ↓ |
Biological growth | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ temperature▲ | Living organisms ↓ less transport and deposition ↓ less adherence and growth due to reduction of moisture from rainwater on the surface shorter moisture cycles ↓ less accumulation due to shorter and less consecutive moisture cycles | ↓ | |
Efflorescence | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ humidity▼▼ temperature▲ | Soluble salts ↓ less dissolution due to reduction of rainwater in the render shorter moisture cycles ↕ less or more crystallization and deposition due to ↓ reduction of dissolution probability ↑ faster drying process and evaporation | ↕− | |
Stains | Discolouration | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ temperature▲ solar radiation▼ | Chemical components ↓ less leaching potential ↓ less reaction to pollutants due to reduction of transport, deposition and adherence of particles ↓ less photo degradation | ↓ |
Cracks | Mapped cracking | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ humidity▼▼ temperature▲ | Fresh render curing process ↑ more shrinkage due to faster evaporation of water from the mix Hardened render ↕ less or more shrinkage by carbonation due to ↓ less dissolution of chemical componds due to reduction of rainwater in the render ↑ deeper CO2 penetration due to reduction of rainwater in the render ↑ deeper and faster CO2 penetration by temperature warming Hardened render ↕ less or more expansion by alkali-aggregate reaction due to ↓ less swelling of alkali-silica gel due to reduction of rainwater in the render ↑ more ultimate thermal induced expansion | ↕+ |
Oriented cracking | temperature▲ | Hardened render ↑ more differential movements of hygrothermal nature due to increase of thermal expansion increase of dimensional change by intense warming | ↑ | |
Render level cracking | wind-rain action▼ temperature▲ | Hardened render ↑ more thermal expansion and dimensional change by intense warming ↓ less shrinkage due to decrease of cooling by wind-rain action decrease of temperature gradient within the render | ↕+ | |
Pore level cracking | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ humidity▼▼ temperature▲ | Soluble salts ↓ less transport and deposition ↓ less dissolution potential due to reduction of rainwater in the render shorter moisture cycles ↕ less or more crystallization and deposition due to ↓ reduction of dissolution probability ↑ faster drying process and evaporation Water in the render ↓ less freeze-thaw potential | ↕− | |
Loss of adhesion | Crumbling and spalling | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ humidity▼▼ temperature▲ | Soluble salts ↓ less transport and deposition ↓ less dissolution potential due to reduction of rainwater in the render shorter moisture cycles ↕ less or more crystallization and deposition due to ↓ reduction of dissolution probability ↑ faster drying process and evaporation Hardened render ↕ less or more expansion by alkali-aggregate reaction due to ↓ less swelling of alkali-silica gel due to reduction of rainwater in the render ↑ more ultimate thermal induced expansion Water in the render ↓ less freeze-thaw potential Fine particles ↓ less washing | ↕− |
Prior triggering defects: cracks and detachment of the outer render layer | + | |||
Loss of adhesion | Bulging | wind-rain action▼ temperature▲ | Hardened render ↓ less wetting ↑ more deformations of hygrothermal nature due to increase of thermal expansion ↓ less damp weight in the render | ↕+ |
wind▼ wind-rain action▼ humidity▼▼ temperature▲ | The degradation mechanism based on the dissolution and crystallization of salts is applicable | ↕− | ||
Prior triggering defects: cracks | + | |||
Detachment | wind▼ wind-rain action▼ humidity▼▼ temperature▲ | The degradation mechanism based on the dissolution and crystallization of salts is applicable | ↕− | |
wind-rain action▼ temperature▲ | The degradation mechanism based on the hardened render’s deformation of hygrothermal nature is applicable | ↕+ | ||
Prior triggering defects: cracks and bulging | + |
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Barrelas, J.; Silva, A.; de Brito, J.; Tadeu, A. Effects of Climate Change on Rendered Façades: Expected Degradation in a Progressively Warmer and Drier Climate—A Review Based on the Literature. Buildings 2023, 13, 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020352
Barrelas J, Silva A, de Brito J, Tadeu A. Effects of Climate Change on Rendered Façades: Expected Degradation in a Progressively Warmer and Drier Climate—A Review Based on the Literature. Buildings. 2023; 13(2):352. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020352
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarrelas, Joana, Ana Silva, Jorge de Brito, and António Tadeu. 2023. "Effects of Climate Change on Rendered Façades: Expected Degradation in a Progressively Warmer and Drier Climate—A Review Based on the Literature" Buildings 13, no. 2: 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020352