Solar Chimney Performance Driven Air Ventilation Promotion: An Investigation of Various Configuration Parameters

Abstract

Climate change represents a vital public health challenge, resulting in serious impacts that require passive strategies in the built environment sector to mitigate such impacts. Such strategies are associated with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG_s), which present a vital need. Consequently, the solar chimney (SC) can be considered as an effective passive strategy to provide energy, thermal comfort, and air ventilation performance. Therefore, this study focused on SC performance and its related significance on air ventilation. This study aimed to bridge the gap in previous studies and indicates the hotspot topics to conduct a conceptual framework with three phases that can integrate various configurations of a SC with various buildings by considering the recent tools of numerical analysis. Thus, a bibliometric analysis based on the Biblioshiny and VOSviewer tools within the scope of the SC and air ventilation promotion was accomplished. Then, various configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation are provided. The results indicate that further studies are required to develop themes like the “building design” of SC and its associated effects such as air quality and ventilation, in addition to “numerical analysis” and “optimization” in terms of hotspot topics and the potential for future consequences. Additionally, limited configurations of previous studies provide promising investigations resulting in several applications including many zones and floors that can be achieved by the proposed conceptual framework. Various insights and possibilities can promote numerous configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion, which serves as research guidance for designers and specialists toward the mitigation of climate change impacts and attaining the SDGs.

1. Introduction

Climate change and urbanization can be considered as some of the global challenges affecting human society in this century [1,2,3,4,5]. Thus, passive solutions in several sectors including construction are required [1,6,7,8]. As such, the yearly energy consumption of buildings is 42%, primarily used for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) as well as power generation [9,10,11]. Therefore, an increasing recognition of the importance of energy-efficient and environmentally friendly approaches in providing the building design has emphasized the incorporation of natural ventilation solutions in buildings [12,13,14,15,16]. Passive solutions for buildings can provide high durability to promote indoor air quality (IAQ) and indoor thermal comfort and decrease the energy consumption, besides the carbon footprint, by using passive ventilation solutions including, in particular, atria, courtyards, double walls, wind towers, and solar chimneys (SCs) [12,17,18,19,20,21,22]. SCs can be considered as a significant green passive design solution that can enhance both passive ventilation and solar energy proportionately [23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. On the one hand, a SC is based on solar-induced thermal convection and buoyancy [2,17,30]. Due to pressure and temperature gradients across spaces, such thermal convection and buoyancy can promote airflow circulation and provide significant ventilation and thermal comfort. On the other hand, SC power plants (SCPP) including photovoltaic panels can generate electricity [31,32,33,34,35]. Thus, SCs can be considered promising in terms of providing SDGs including thermal comfort, air ventilation performance, climate action, good health and well-being, clean energy, and energy efficiency, besides sustainable communities [2,36].

Several studies have investigated the effectiveness of SCs and natural ventilation [36], the optimal configurations, and the geometrical parameters of SCs theoretically [37,38,39], experimentally [40,41,42,43,44], and numerically [2,45,46,47,48,49] in various climate zones. For instance, Maghrabie HM, Abdelkareem MA, Elsaid K, Sayed ET, Radwan A, Rezk H et al. [36] reviewed the qualitative investigations concerning the geometrical parameters influencing the SC’s fluid flow behaviors and thermal performance. Arce J, Jiménez MJ, Guzmán JD, Heras MR, Alvarez G, and Xamán J [43] experimentally explored a SC’s thermal efficiency for natural ventilation. In addition, to enhance the flow characteristics within the SCPP, Patel SK, Prasad D, and Ahmed MR [46] provided ANSYS-CFX computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to optimize the geometry of the key components of the SCPP. Gan G [50] used CFD to explore the impacts of the wall-to-glazing distance, wall height, glazing type, and wall insulation of Trombe walls on the summer cooling of buildings. In addition, nine distinct aerodynamic designs for two cases of buildings in Bushehr, Iran’s coastal district, were investigated by Shaeri J and Mahdavinejad M.A [17]. Haghighi AP, and Maerefat M [23] explored the ability of SC to address the users’ thermal and ventilation requirements throughout the winter months. Leng PC, Aw SB, Eeda N, Ali H, Hoh G, Ling T et al. [21] investigated the effectiveness of a SC in improving the ventilation and air-exchange rates in multi-story public housing in tropical areas to potentially reduce the transmission of airborne illnesses. An overview of the SC’s performance and operation as well as any potential design and operational factors that may affect the SC’s performance for natural ventilation were proposed in [36]. Furthermore, the thermal performance of a SC using different configurations was experimentally investigated in [43]. However, the limited studies only highlighted the performance of SCs regarding configurations and geometrical parameter-driven ventilation efficiency and the SC’s performance related to multi-story public buildings [21,51,52,53,54], high-rise residential buildings [55], and multi-zones [56].

Therefore, this study aimed to bridge the gap in previous studies and promote air ventilation efficiency through the configurations and geometrical parameters of a SC. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides the various classifications of a SC, followed by a focus on the associated relationship between the performance of a SC and IAQ in Section 3. Section 4 presents the method related to bibliometric analysis based on both the Biblioshiny and VOSviewer tools within the scope of the SC and air ventilation promotion. Section 5 highlights the results and discussion of the bibliometric analysis, and various configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion are discussed in Section 6. Section 7 emphasizes the discussion and potential of future implications, and finally, the proposed conceptual framework is conducted. Section 8 presents our conclusions.

2. Various Classifications of a SC

SCs can be classified according to their configuration, application, and performance. Regarding the configurations, roof SCs, a Trombe wall of vertical SCs, and combined SCs present the main configurations of SCs. The vertical SC is built with vertical glass to capture the solar heat. A solar collector serves a similar purpose as glass for the roof in a vertical SC [28]. In addition, several promising examples are couples between them. Moreover, SCs can be classified into two types based on their application: diurnal ventilation chimneys and nocturnal ventilation chimneys. SCs for diurnal ventilation have a low heat capacity absorber surface that is characterized for providing natural ventilation based on absorbed sun irradiation in tropical climates. However, the absorber surfaces used in nocturnal ventilation have a wide heat capacity; they store heat during the day and at night and then dissipate it, resulting in nocturnal ventilation [23]. Concerning the SC performance, the SC can act as a solar-driven passive ventilation system based on the airflow within the space being driven by buoyancy. The stack effect is brought on by changes in air density at the SC’s inlet and output [36]. In addition, a proposed large-scale power system called a SCPP absorbs both the direct and dispersed solar radiation and partially transforms it into electricity that is GHG-free. A SCPP is comprised of a solar collector, a SC at the collection’s center, a power conversion unit (PCU) with one or more turbine generators, and an energy storage layer [57]. The airflow produced inside the collector by buoyancy brought on by the greenhouse effect powers the turbines [58].

3. The Performance of the SC and IAQ

Natural ventilation, according to the American Organization of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), is the process of bringing outside air within a building as a result of differences in the natural pressure or density. The difference in air density between indoor and outdoor air due to variations in air temperature is known as the stack effect or air buoyancy [36]. Natural ventilation presents a vital requirement for a healthy lifestyle, the significance of which has been emphasized by the current global COVID-19 outbreak [20,59,60], whereas air changes per hour (ACH) offer a means of preventing infections [21].

Air ventilation is based on providing indoor spaces with fresh air from the outside atmosphere to eliminate and dilute indoor-accumulated hazardous air pollutants [10,43], hence improving the IAQ and thermal comfort [2,61]. Indoor thermal comfort is associated with efficient ventilation systems either mechanically or naturally, and accounts for 35 to 40 percent of the country’s electrical demand consumed by the residential sector [36]. Therefore, both natural ventilation and thermal comfort in buildings are associated with several solutions such as atria, courtyards, wind towers, double façades, Trombe walls, and SCs [22,36,62].

For natural ventilation, air motion through the building is based on wind force, thermal or temperature forces, or the stack effect [63]. For instance, a wind tower can be considered as a passive ventilation configuration, hence a low-carbon component in vernacular architecture based on air motion to provide both passive cooling and thermal comfort as well as reduce energy consumption [12]. On the other hand, a SC, using solar-induced buoyancy-driven convection [42], is based on thermal or temperature forces and invests heat gain to induce natural cooling in various buildings [28].

A SC utilizes solar radiation on the southwest- and south-facing buildings for ventilation, heat insulation, and heat preservation [21,63] to generate convective airflows that enhance thermal comfort and the IAQ through the reduction in pollutants [36,43]. To create natural airflow, SCs are based on the temperature pressure difference between indoor and outdoor spaces. As a result, when the absorber plate gathers the radiant energy from the glazed area, the temperature difference between the chimney channel and the indoor spaces creates a pressure difference. As a result of the temperature difference and natural convection, the indoor air escapes through the chimney’s entrance [21,28], enhancing the ACH, and hence the air-flow rates within indoor spaces [21].

4. Methods

The procedures used in this study can be split into two main sections that involve choosing the generation of the database as well as the Biblioshiny and VOSviewer tools. The preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) method was used to develop the database, as the subtitles below emphasize.

4.1. Generation of Database

The development of a database presents an important step that directly influences the characteristics of the results [64]. This study emphasized Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS), which can be considered as the most available bibliometric sources [65]. Regarding the publication inclusion criteria, a literature search on Scopus was conducted by combining relevant keywords like “Air ventilation” OR “Airflow” AND “Solar chimney”. The inclusion criteria of this paper emphasized SCs and passive natural ventilation. When considering the publication filtering criteria, the search process was conducted using the titles, abstracts, and keywords of publication materials. A total of 293 publications were identified on 1 January 2023 involving 182 articles, 94 proceeding conferences, nine book chapters, six review articles, one book, and one erratum. Furthermore, this study used three filters—categories, publication type, and language—to reduce the number of pertinent papers that fit the criteria. This study focused on “solar chimneys”, “natural ventilation”, “ventilation performance”, and “air flow rate”. According to the publication type, this paper was based on “articles”, “review articles”, and “book chapters”. Finally, publications that were authored in languages other than English were not included. A total of 273 documents were thus discovered that satisfied the basic filters.

Further searches using comparable keywords through the WoS core collection were conducted to ensure that no material relevant to the investigation was missed. As a result, 111 additional articles were added to the preliminary database, bringing the total up to 384. After manual screening of the publication titles and abstracts to ensure that the research fit the goals and parameters, 346 publications were found. Finally, the whole text of 346 publications was examined to determine whether they could be kept on as papers pertinent to the study’s subject. Thus, as they were linked to the purpose of this bibliometric analysis, 320 were selected, as shown in Figure 1 and Table A1 in Appendix A.

Figure 1. Workflow of the selection procedure based on the PRISMA method.

4.2. Selection of Bibliometric Tools

Documents, keywords, authors, journals, references, countries, and other entities in research fields can be visualized using the Biblioshiny and VOSviewer applications. As a result, both Biblioshiny (version 4) and VOSviewer (version 1.6.17) were used in this investigation.

5. Results of Bibliometric Analysis

5.1. Network Analysis of Co-Occurrence

Research frontiers and hotspots can be identified via keyword co-occurrence analysis [9,66]. Consequently, the bibliometric search presented in this study was related to the clustering of the 50 most popular keywords throughout the previous years in the publications. The word cloud word dynamics of the authors’ most frequently used keywords in SC and air ventilation are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. A visualized word cloud of the research focus’s top-performing keywords.

On the other hand, Figure 3 indicates the co-occurrence analysis network, in which colors present various clusters, and the cluster formation is based on the relationships between the objects, resulting in clusters of sections that are strongly related. The most frequently occurring keywords in the chosen publications, in order of highest occurrence, were SC (346 occurrences), natural ventilation (116 occurrences), CFD (55 occurrences), solar energy (52 occurrences), and thermal performance (32 occurrences). Such results propose relevant concerns on the possibilities of the numerical analysis of SCs toward ventilation and thermal performance.

Figure 3. Clustering of the co-occurrence network based on: (a) different clusters; (b) evolution over time.

The co-occurrence analysis network was divided into six clusters, and the largest cluster (red color), which includes natural ventilation, SC, building ventilation, CFD, and collector, is shown in Figure 3a. In addition, the green cluster includes architectural design, air quality, and energy systems. The third cluster (blue color) and the green one are closely linked, involving airflow, photovoltaic panels, and numerical models. The fourth (yellow color) emphasizes solar energy, solar radiation, and power plants. Likewise, Figure 3b highlights the evolution of the co-occurrence analysis network over time, which demonstrates the applications of SCs considering climate change and numerical simulations.

5.2. Thematic Analysis

The four quadrants of the thematic map—niche themes, emerging or declining themes, motor themes, and basic themes—can easily plot and group the keywords to identify research themes (Figure 4). As shown in Table A2, eight clusters can include the keywords with their associated occurrences. The keywords “empirical model”, “energy”, and “natural convection” presented as niche themes. Nevertheless, the keywords “geometric parameters”, “simulation performance”, “power planet”, and “numerical analysis” presented as emerging, despite their importance. In contrast, the keywords “solar chimney”, “airflow”, “natural ventilation”, and “CFD” were considered motor themes, which reflect well-developed and important themes. In contrast, “optimization”, “collector”, “thermal performance”, and “buildings” reflected basic themes.

Figure 4. Thematic map of the 250 most frequent keywords.

According to the thematic analysis, further efforts are required to develop important issues like “numerical analysis” and “optimization”, in addition to “building design” in SCs and their related effects on air quality and ventilation. Additionally, despite its importance, the most popular terms did not sufficiently repeat the “geometric parameters” technique. Thus, additional study is required to investigate and apply such issues.

5.3. Most Cited Publications

Co-citation analysis was identified for the most globally cited publications, as shown in Figure 5. The top ten articles have also been compiled in Table 1, where 80% of the top ten cited publications cover experimental and numerical analysis. The first, ninth, and tenth positions of the most cited application with 258 citations examined the ventilation rate of Trombe walls in buildings using CFD simulation [50]. The publication ranked in second and third-position publications with 228 and 221 citations, respectively, had developed a steady model of a SC to promote the influence of building thermally-induced ventilation [39,63]. The fourth-position publication with 181 citations was based on the experimental investigation of SC and Trombe walls to predict heat transfer and mass flow for natural ventilation [42]. On the other hand, the fifth and seventh positions with 177 and 138 citations, respectively, provided a thorough analysis of the evolution of wind towers and SCs, emphasizing the many cooling methods and power technologies that can be incorporated with wind tower systems to enhance ventilation and thermal performance [12,58]. A numerical simulation of the airflow, heat transport, and power output characteristics of a SCPP model with an energy storage layer and turbine was also produced in the sixth position with 143 citations [67]. The eighth position included three publications with 134 citations that emphasized the experimental investigation of thermal performance for natural ventilation related to the SC [43], whereas the subsequent publications were based on the numerical analysis of heat transfer and airflow in the SCPP system [46,57].

Figure 5. Co-citation analysis for the most cited publications.

Table 1. Top-ten most-cited publications.

Rank	Publication Title	Journal	Total Citations	TC per Year	Ref.
1st	A parametric study of Trombe walls for passive cooling of buildings	Energy and Buildings	258	9.92	[50]
2nd	Solar chimney for enhanced stack ventilation	Building and Environment	228	7.35	[63]
3rd	Performance of a solar chimney	Solar Energy	221	10.52	[39]
4th	Airflow and thermal efficiency characteristics in solar chimneys and Trombe Walls	Energy and Buildings	181	10.65	[42]
5th	The development of commercial wind towers for natural ventilation: A review	Applied Energy	177	14.75	[12]
6th	Numerical analysis of the performance of solar chimney power plant system	Energy Conversion and Management	143	11.00	[67]
7th	A review of solar chimney power technology	Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews	138	9.86	[58]
8th	Experimental study for natural ventilation on a solar chimney	Renewable Energy	134	8.93	[43]
8th	Numerical analysis of flow and heat transfer characteristics in solar chimney power plants with an energy storage layer	Energy Conversion and Management	134	8.38	[67]
8th	Computational studies on the effect of geometric parameters on the performance of a solar chimney power plant		134	13.40	[46]

Based on an examination of the most widely cited publications, overall, good consistency could be observed between the results of co-citation for references and the co-occurrence of the analysis of the keyword. In addition, SC publications have provided optimization of the geometry, energy systems, and CFD simulations, which integrate a passive strategy to provide air ventilation and renewable systems to provide electricity via integration elements like solar collectors, chimney towers, and wind turbines.

5.4. The Impact and Network of Authors

In accordance with the author’s impact concerning the total number of citations, Gan G, a Professor of the Institute of Building Technology, Department of Architecture and Building Technology, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK, is the most cited author, as shown in Figure 6a with 494 total citations in the research scope. He is followed by Bansal NK, Bhandari MS, and Mathur R, each of whom has a total of 349 citations. However, concerning the authors’ H-Index, Abid MS, Ayadi A, Bouabidi A, and Driss Z obtained the greatest value, followed by Al-kayiem HH, Gan G, Khanal R, Lei C, Li Y, and Nasraoui H with an H-Index of 4, as shown in Figure 6b.

Figure 6. Bibliometric analysis of the top 10 authors: (a) total citations; (b) H-Index; (c) production over years.

Figure 6c shows the output of the top 10 authors over time, with the number of papers (circle size) and the total number of citations (circle color) every year. For Nguyen YQ, Professor at the Dept. of Civil Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, and Driss Z, Full Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National School of Engineers of Sfax, their documents in the research scope presented a greater number, so were the most productive authors.

On the other hand, the size of the circles can be defined by the number of citations per 50 authors, which highlights the significance of the authors’ network, as illustrated in Figure 7. The lines between the authors indicate linkages. The author’s network included eighteen clusters. The most cited authors in each cluster were Gan G (494 citations), Bhandari MS (349 citations), Abid MS (192 citations), Li Y (185 citations), Zhang G (71 citations), and Chen I (38 citations).

Figure 7. Bibliometric analysis of the 50 most prominent authors’ networks.

5.5. The Network of Sources

The top 30 sources in the network that frequently published previous research can be used as an accurate indicator of a publication’s credibility [68]. The network analysis of the top 30 sources according to the quantity of documents is shown in Figure 8a. Renewable Energy, Energy and Buildings, and Solar Energy were the top 3 in the ranking. The network consisted of three clusters of sources; the red and green contained the largest number of items (12 sources), the blue, six sources. It is worth mentioning that the most important issues in each cluster can be identified based on the scope and aim of the sources. However, when looking at the total number of citations, the journal Renewable Energy came in second with 763 citations, followed by the Journal of Energy and Buildings with 1066, as shown in Figure 8b.

Figure 8. Bibliometric analysis of sources: (a) sources’ network by the number of documents; (b) total citations of the top 10 sources.

5.6. The Network of Countries

By using bibliographic coupling, it is possible to identify the countries that have made significant contributions to the research field, which sheds more light on the topic and explains why that specific method of study had been developed [66,69]. In this context, based on the number of documents, Figure 9 shows the top countries in the research sector. The size of each node reflects how many documents each country has published. According to the results, China completed 57 documents with 882 citations, Australia completed 17 documents with 488 citations, India completed 14 documents with 2108 citations, Italy completed 73 documents with 1740 citations, and Germany completed 51 documents with 428 citations. Three clusters formed, providing the number of publications: red cluster including (12 items), green cluster (11 items), and blue cluster (seven items).

Figure 9. Bibliometric analysis of the 30 most prominent countries’ networks by the number of documents.

6. Various Configuration Parameters Related to SC Performance-Driven Air Ventilation Promotion

Numerous computational, analytical, and experimental studies for multi-zone and zonal models as well as for small-scale and full-scale experimental prototypes have shown that the chimney’s shape and morphology affect the flow rate and ACH [15,25,46,50,55,57,70,71,72,73,74]. Patel SK, Prasad D, and Ahmed MR [46] explored the influence of various geometric parameters on a SCPP such as the collector inlet opening and the collector outlet. In addition, Zhang, H.; Yang, D.; Tam, V.W.Y.; Tao, Y.; Zhang, G.; Setunge, S.; Shi, L. [13] investigated the flow rate of the roof collector of the Trombe wall. Table 2 outlines various configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion such as layout, configurations of openings, chimney ratio including air gap and height, the inclination of the SC including glazing wall and roof as well as the materials and configurations of absorber and glazing walls or mixed configurations. For instance, Hosien MA and Selim SM [57] investigated the relationship between ACH and the chimney’s height, gap, and width. Fine JP, Zhang S, Li Y, and Touchie MF [55] analyzed the airflow created by solar chimneys in high-rise buildings. Key parametric relationships were provided such as a negative relationship between the building’s height and the airflow rates on each story. In addition, positive relationships could be observed by the solar collector’s width and each floor’s airflow rate. Moreover, the solar chimney design can be optimized to provide the indoor air velocity and thermal comfort, as indicated in [25], where they highlighted that the most important factor is the width of the solar chimney, followed by the inclination degree and the air gap, while the impact of the SC height is minimal. Moreover, the ACH can be associated with increasing the air gap of the SC, which causes the hydraulic boundary layer on the absorber and glass wall to develop, hence reducing the flow and the amount of air flowing [13]. Dhahri et al. [74] examined absorber wall configurations such as flat corners, trapeze corners, rounded corners, and triangle corners. In comparison to alternative arrangements, the triangular corner configuration increased the solar chimney’s thermal efficiency for natural ventilation. In the following subsections, various configuration parameters of SCs related to air ventilation are discussed.

6.1. Layout of the SC

The layout of the SC can affect the airflow rate, and thus the ventilation rate and SC efficacy. Using EnergyPlus software, the efficiency of a solar chimney connected to a typical Isfahan seven-story office building was investigated based on the location of its components in the building’s southern, southwestern, and eastern regions [53]. The findings showed that the solar chimney’s placement in the east–southeast corner of the building, where there is the greatest amount of radiation and two absorbing walls, could result in the highest ventilation rate. In addition, Nguyen YQ, Nguyen V, Tran L, and Wells J [75] indicated that the highest flow rate could be achieved by the parallel and exhaust air at two different outputs, and the suggested configurations significantly (up to 40%) increased the flow rate when compared to a regular SC.

6.2. Configurations of Openings of SC

The sizing and orientation of the openings can affect the performance of a SC [46]. Punyasompun S, Hirunlabh J, Khedari J, and Zeghmati B [52] experimentally and numerically investigated small scale models of a three-story building with a SC under Bangkok’s climatic conditions. The findings indicated that an inlet opening on each floor and one outlet opening on the third floor was preferable to installing inlet and outlet apertures on each floor. Regarding the position, Mohamed AQ, Alshara AK, and Mitlaik HM [49] investigated the various locations and shapes of the openings (top, middle, and bottom) as well as windows in horizontal, vertical, and square shapes. The performance of the chimney was impacted by the orientation of the suction opening entrances. In Maysan, a SC at any angle of inclination on the horizontal bottom suction opening offered the best thermal results. Ling LS, Rahman MM, Chu CM, Misaran MSB, and Tamiri FM [76] examined the area related to the inlet and outlet of a SC, which varied depending on the inclination angle and space between the inner and outer walls from 0.0224 m² to 0.6 m² and 0.1 m² to 0.14 m², respectively. The area ratio between the inlet and outlet provides an essential parameter, according to the CFD results, and the inlet opening area should be at least twice as large as the outlet opening area. Moreover, Zhang H, Tao Y, Nguyen K, Han F, Li J, and Shi L [56] found that an inlet size of 0.2 m resulted in the best design; larger windows and inlets also promoted overall performance, but their effects were negligible when their sizes exceeded the ideal sizes in multi-zone rooms. Four distinct inlet designs were investigated by the ANSYS FLUENT program while taking into account the roof opening [77]. The results demonstrated that the vertical cross-section inlet outperformed the other three inlet configurations, followed by the horizontal cross-section inlet.

6.3. The Ratio of SC Ratio Gap-to-Height

Significant characteristics depending on the ratio of the air gap to height are presented by the SC ratio. In this context, Imran and Ahmed [11] examined the induced air inside a 12 m³ chamber using SC. To achieve the highest rate of ventilation, they concluded that the ideal chimney aspect ratio was 13.3, that the length should be 2 m, and the inclination angle should be 60 degrees [17].

Regarding the height, the SC’s height contributes to the buoyant force that affects air circulation [36] and develops turbulent airflow to obtain a large flow rate [78]. According to Hashim HS, Kassim MS, and Kadhim HH [45], inclined and vertical extended chimneys increased the ventilation rates by 7.5% and 13%, respectively, in comparison to a conventional chimney model. With regard to length, Wei D, Qirong Y, and Jincui Z [79] showed that increasing the overall chimney length enhanced the ventilation. The air mass flow rate showed that an optimal length-to-width ratio of 12:1 existed as it initially developed, and then declined with the chimney width. Jing H, Chen Z, and Li A [41] experimentally investigated a SC model with large gap-to-height ratios between 0.2 and 0.6. The results showed that the optimum ratio that maximized the airflow rate in the chimney was around 0.5. Moreover, Zhang H, Tao Y, Nguyen K, Han F, Li J, and Shi L [56] investigated how effectively a SC performed in multi-zone buildings. The findings demonstrated that relocating the air inlet upward increased the ventilation rate by 57.28% and increased the ventilation capacity by roughly 90% when the chimney height was increased from 3.0 to 5.0 m. Additionally, the maximum airflow rate in this experiment was discovered for a SC with a cavity gap of 0.2 m and an entrance size of 0.2 m. According to Hosien MA and Selim SM [57], raising the chimney’s height, gap, and width will enhance the rate of ACH. They discovered that the chimney gap, as opposed to the other geometrical factors, had a significantly bigger impact on the ACH, but that the mass flow rate could be increased by about 18% for the height, 78% for the chimney gap, and 63% for the width.

6.4. Incline of SC

The SC inclination angle is a significant configuration parameter that has a significant impact on the ventilation rate and room flow patterns [80]. When compared to the typical chimney design with a vertical passive wall layout, the glazing wall’s slope can significantly enhance a SC’s ventilation effectiveness. Khanal R and Lei Ce [81] investigated the variation of passive wall inclination angles in the range of 0–6 degrees with a 0.1 m fixed base air gap width. The results showed that the passive wall’s inclination angle had no influence on the temperature distribution along the height of the chimney and over the air gap width. However, the inclination angle had a significant impact on the averaged airflow velocity over the air gap width. The association was also found to be valid for all inclination angles, from 30° to 90°, according to Chen C, Naraghi M, and Akbari P [82].

Table 2. Various configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion. Source: The researcher, based on [41,45,49,54,57,70,74,75,76,77,78,80,83,84,85,86].

Case	Conf.	Description	Schematics		Method	Findings	Ref.
Single spaced	Layout of SC	Three configurations related to the layout of SC were proposed: ○ The chimneys are linked one after the other. ○ The parallel chimneys have two distinct outlets for air discharge. ○ Although the chimneys are parallel, the outputs are merged.			Numerically	The largest flow rate is possible with parallel and exhaust air coming out of two different outputs. When compared to a standard SC, the flow rate is significantly increased by the suggested configurations by up to 40%.	[75]
			Section drawings of three configurations of SC layout.
Single spaced	Configurations of openings of SC	Four configurations, as part of a rooftop SC, were compared to the typical model: ○ The cross-sectional plane of the inlet is vertical. ○ The inlet’s cross-section plane is slanted by 45 degrees. ○ The cross-sectional plane of the inlet is horizontal. ○ The clear cover at the collector intake has a curved shape.			Experimentally and numerically	In terms of the highest velocity and highest performance indication, the vertical cross-section arrangement performed best.	[77]
			Section drawing of a typical model of SC inlet configuration.	Section drawings of four configurations of SC inlet configuration.
Single spaced	Configurations of openings of SC	Various positions and shapes of the windows were examined: ○ The top, middle, and bottom sides. ○ Windows in square, horizontal, and vertical shapes.			Numerically	The performance of the chimney was impacted by the orientation of the opening entrances. The horizontal bottom opening produced the most exquisite thermal results. The horizontal bottom inlet added significant value to the ACH.	[49]
			Perspective drawings of:
Single spaced	Configurations of openings of SC	Investigations were conducted into how opening areas affect the SC performance: ○ Based on modifications to the inclination angle and space between the inner and outer walls, the SC’s inlet and outflow areas were changed from 0.0224 m2 to 0.6 m2 and 0.1 m2 to 0.14 m2, respectively.	Section drawing of opening areas		Numerically	The results demonstrated that the proportion of inlet to outlet had a major impact on flow performance. The performance of the SC was better than the performance of the SC with a ratio of less than two, if the area ratio between the inlet and outlet was equal to or greater than two.	[76]
Single spaced	Ratio of SC	Investigations were conducted on lengths of 1 m, widths of 0.7 m, and heights ranging from 0.7 to 6.3 m.	Perspective drawing of the SC ratio		Numerically	When the height of the SC was increased from 2.1 m to 2.8 m, the flow rate increased noticeably. A redesigned linearly tapered SC profile could increase the flow rate by 25%.	[78]
Single spaced	Ratio of SC	SC models with ratios ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 were examined.	Perspective drawing of the SC ratio		Experimentally	Heat flux and chimney gap had a large influence on the airflow rate, air temperature, and velocity distribution. An excellent starting point for maximizing airflow rate is around 0.5.	[41]
Single spaced	Ratio of SC	The effects of different dimensions of SC ratio were examined including: ○ The chimney gap varied between 0.1 and 0.5 m. ○ Chimney heights ranged from 2 to 8 m. ○ The range of chimney widths was from 0.4 to 1 m.	Section drawing of the SC ratio		Numerically	When compared to the other geometrical characteristics, the chimney gap had an accurately significant impact on the ACH. The flow rate increased by about 18% for the height, 78% for the gap, and 63% for the width when the chimney’s dimensions were doubled.	[57]
Multi-zone	Ratio of SC	The following effects of chimney dimensions were investigated: ○ Inlet size ○ Cavity gap ○ Chimney height ○ Inlet location	Section drawing of the SC ratio		Numerically	The ventilation capacity rose by nearly 90% when the chimney height was increased from 3.0 to 5.0 m. The best airflow rate was obtained with a cavity gap of 0.2 m and an input size of 0.2 m.	[56]
Typical floors	Incline of SC	Three inclined component length combinations were compared to the conventional model: ○ The inclined SC angle was modified from 0° to 35° to determine the significant effect on the airflow velocity.			Numerically	The tilted surface with side angles of 0° captured the most solar radiation. The airflow velocities of the first and second floors can be increased by 12.5% and 47%, respectively, in the overall ACHs, due to the improved SC design.	[54]
			Plan drawings of SC with:
			Lateral angle = 0°	Lateral angle = 15°
			Lateral angle = 25°	Lateral angle = 35°
Single spaced	Incline of SC	Under different heat fluxes, investigations were conducted on inclination inclinations ranging from 30° to 90° concerning the horizontal plane.	Section drawing of the SC incline		Numerically	The inclination angle affects the quantity of the solar irradiation received and, as a result, the ventilation performance. The maximum ACH values can be attained at inclination angles between 45° and 60°, depending on the latitude and operating season.	[83]
Single spaced	Incline of SC	SC widths ranging from 0.1 m to 0.35 m were investigated for various inclination angles.	Section drawing of the SC incline		Numerically	When the chimney inclination is between 45° and 70°, the airflow rate is optimal.	[80]
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	A SC’s thermal performance with and without a PCM was examined. For the case study of a solar chimney with PCM, three separate scenarios were established: ○ Fully charged when closed. ○ Partially open charging mode. ○ Enable full charging mode.			Experimentally	The addition of a PCM to a SC reduces the airflow when charging but increases it during discharging. The closed mode maximizes the use of solar energy when no heating is required. The open mode would supply the living area with heated air while it was charging. Compared to the closed-fully charging mode, the mean airflow rate during the phase transition period was lower in the open-partly charging mode.	[84]
			Section drawings of the SC with:
			Closed mode	Open mode
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	Both a proposed chimney with a stepped absorber surface and a standard SC with a plane wall absorbing solar radiation were investigated.			Numerically	The step significantly changed the Nusselt number distribution on the absorber surface, up to 11% more airflow was achieved. When compared to a standard SC, through the chimney, the air temperature increases, and the airflow’s thermal efficiency rises by up to 225%.	[70]
			Section drawings of the SC with:
			Typical SC with a plane wall absorbing solar radiation	Proposed chimney with a stepped absorber surface
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	Four distinct configurations of absorber walls for the SC were investigated: ○ Flat corner ○ Rounded corner ○ Triangle corner ○ Trapeze corner			Numerically	A triangular corner’s energy efficiency is 50% higher than a trapeze corner, 67% higher than a rounded corner, and 2% higher than a fat corner. The triangle corner raises the temperature and pressure of the air in the SC.	[74]
			Flat corner	Rounded corner
			Triangle corner	Trapeze corner
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	The effects of the three-segment staggered split absorber design in six distinct configurations were investigated. The three absorber segments’ separations from the wall surface are d/4, d/2, and 3d/4.			Numerically	The flow at the chimney exit was improved and the ventilation rate was increased by 57.0% with this particular absorber arrangement. For a 2.8 m high open-ended solar chimney with a 0.84 m air gap, the improvement was 57%. It is advised to use a three-segment design because it is cost-effective.	[85]
Single spaced	Mixed configurations	The standard SC model has an area of (0.7 × 1) m2 with an air window on the northern wall of the room (0.3 × 0.3) m2 at a height of 0.5 m. ○ Two models were expanded in height by half of their original length (0.35 m); one was extended vertically (v.ext.), while the other was inclined at a 45° angle (i.ext.). ○ A combined model (com.) was created by combining the expanded chimney length and the inclusion of ○ a second window with the same area as the first window.			Numerically	The inclined and vertical extended chimneys increased the ventilation rate by 7.5% and 13%, respectively, in comparison to a traditional chimney type. The addition of a second window increased the air movement in the space, which led to a 3 °C difference in the room’s average air temperature and ambient air temperature as well as a 39% increase in ventilation rate.	[45]
			The conventional model	The chimney is extended vertically (v.ext.)
			The extended chimney is inclined at the angle of 45° (i.e.)	The extended chimney length combined with another window
Two typical floors	Mixed configurations	A series of SC configurations were investigated including: ○ The chimney’s overall length and width. ○ The inclined angle of the second-floor inlet. ○ The vertical to inclined section length ratio. ○ The inclined angle of the chimney.			Numerically	After the chimney channel’s width initially increased, the velocity decreased. Researchers found that 12:1 was the ideal length-to-width ratio. The flow rate inside the chimney decreased as the length ratio of the inclined part to the vertical section increased. The ideal inclination angle was discovered to be 4°.	[86]

Table 2. Various configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion. Source: The researcher, based on [41,45,49,54,57,70,74,75,76,77,78,80,83,84,85,86].

Case	Conf.	Description	Schematics		Method	Findings	Ref.
Single spaced	Layout of SC	Three configurations related to the layout of SC were proposed: ○ The chimneys are linked one after the other. ○ The parallel chimneys have two distinct outlets for air discharge. ○ Although the chimneys are parallel, the outputs are merged.			Numerically	The largest flow rate is possible with parallel and exhaust air coming out of two different outputs. When compared to a standard SC, the flow rate is significantly increased by the suggested configurations by up to 40%.	[75]
			Section drawings of three configurations of SC layout.
Single spaced	Configurations of openings of SC	Four configurations, as part of a rooftop SC, were compared to the typical model: ○ The cross-sectional plane of the inlet is vertical. ○ The inlet’s cross-section plane is slanted by 45 degrees. ○ The cross-sectional plane of the inlet is horizontal. ○ The clear cover at the collector intake has a curved shape.			Experimentally and numerically	In terms of the highest velocity and highest performance indication, the vertical cross-section arrangement performed best.	[77]
			Section drawing of a typical model of SC inlet configuration.	Section drawings of four configurations of SC inlet configuration.
Single spaced	Configurations of openings of SC	Various positions and shapes of the windows were examined: ○ The top, middle, and bottom sides. ○ Windows in square, horizontal, and vertical shapes.			Numerically	The performance of the chimney was impacted by the orientation of the opening entrances. The horizontal bottom opening produced the most exquisite thermal results. The horizontal bottom inlet added significant value to the ACH.	[49]
			Perspective drawings of:
Single spaced	Configurations of openings of SC	Investigations were conducted into how opening areas affect the SC performance: ○ Based on modifications to the inclination angle and space between the inner and outer walls, the SC’s inlet and outflow areas were changed from 0.0224 m2 to 0.6 m2 and 0.1 m2 to 0.14 m2, respectively.	Section drawing of opening areas		Numerically	The results demonstrated that the proportion of inlet to outlet had a major impact on flow performance. The performance of the SC was better than the performance of the SC with a ratio of less than two, if the area ratio between the inlet and outlet was equal to or greater than two.	[76]
Single spaced	Ratio of SC	Investigations were conducted on lengths of 1 m, widths of 0.7 m, and heights ranging from 0.7 to 6.3 m.	Perspective drawing of the SC ratio		Numerically	When the height of the SC was increased from 2.1 m to 2.8 m, the flow rate increased noticeably. A redesigned linearly tapered SC profile could increase the flow rate by 25%.	[78]
Single spaced	Ratio of SC	SC models with ratios ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 were examined.	Perspective drawing of the SC ratio		Experimentally	Heat flux and chimney gap had a large influence on the airflow rate, air temperature, and velocity distribution. An excellent starting point for maximizing airflow rate is around 0.5.	[41]
Single spaced	Ratio of SC	The effects of different dimensions of SC ratio were examined including: ○ The chimney gap varied between 0.1 and 0.5 m. ○ Chimney heights ranged from 2 to 8 m. ○ The range of chimney widths was from 0.4 to 1 m.	Section drawing of the SC ratio		Numerically	When compared to the other geometrical characteristics, the chimney gap had an accurately significant impact on the ACH. The flow rate increased by about 18% for the height, 78% for the gap, and 63% for the width when the chimney’s dimensions were doubled.	[57]
Multi-zone	Ratio of SC	The following effects of chimney dimensions were investigated: ○ Inlet size ○ Cavity gap ○ Chimney height ○ Inlet location	Section drawing of the SC ratio		Numerically	The ventilation capacity rose by nearly 90% when the chimney height was increased from 3.0 to 5.0 m. The best airflow rate was obtained with a cavity gap of 0.2 m and an input size of 0.2 m.	[56]
Typical floors	Incline of SC	Three inclined component length combinations were compared to the conventional model: ○ The inclined SC angle was modified from 0° to 35° to determine the significant effect on the airflow velocity.			Numerically	The tilted surface with side angles of 0° captured the most solar radiation. The airflow velocities of the first and second floors can be increased by 12.5% and 47%, respectively, in the overall ACHs, due to the improved SC design.	[54]
			Plan drawings of SC with:
			Lateral angle = 0°	Lateral angle = 15°
			Lateral angle = 25°	Lateral angle = 35°
Single spaced	Incline of SC	Under different heat fluxes, investigations were conducted on inclination inclinations ranging from 30° to 90° concerning the horizontal plane.	Section drawing of the SC incline		Numerically	The inclination angle affects the quantity of the solar irradiation received and, as a result, the ventilation performance. The maximum ACH values can be attained at inclination angles between 45° and 60°, depending on the latitude and operating season.	[83]
Single spaced	Incline of SC	SC widths ranging from 0.1 m to 0.35 m were investigated for various inclination angles.	Section drawing of the SC incline		Numerically	When the chimney inclination is between 45° and 70°, the airflow rate is optimal.	[80]
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	A SC’s thermal performance with and without a PCM was examined. For the case study of a solar chimney with PCM, three separate scenarios were established: ○ Fully charged when closed. ○ Partially open charging mode. ○ Enable full charging mode.			Experimentally	The addition of a PCM to a SC reduces the airflow when charging but increases it during discharging. The closed mode maximizes the use of solar energy when no heating is required. The open mode would supply the living area with heated air while it was charging. Compared to the closed-fully charging mode, the mean airflow rate during the phase transition period was lower in the open-partly charging mode.	[84]
			Section drawings of the SC with:
			Closed mode	Open mode
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	Both a proposed chimney with a stepped absorber surface and a standard SC with a plane wall absorbing solar radiation were investigated.			Numerically	The step significantly changed the Nusselt number distribution on the absorber surface, up to 11% more airflow was achieved. When compared to a standard SC, through the chimney, the air temperature increases, and the airflow’s thermal efficiency rises by up to 225%.	[70]
			Section drawings of the SC with:
			Typical SC with a plane wall absorbing solar radiation	Proposed chimney with a stepped absorber surface
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	Four distinct configurations of absorber walls for the SC were investigated: ○ Flat corner ○ Rounded corner ○ Triangle corner ○ Trapeze corner			Numerically	A triangular corner’s energy efficiency is 50% higher than a trapeze corner, 67% higher than a rounded corner, and 2% higher than a fat corner. The triangle corner raises the temperature and pressure of the air in the SC.	[74]
			Flat corner	Rounded corner
			Triangle corner	Trapeze corner
Single spaced	Materials and configurations of absorber wall and glazing cover of SC	The effects of the three-segment staggered split absorber design in six distinct configurations were investigated. The three absorber segments’ separations from the wall surface are d/4, d/2, and 3d/4.			Numerically	The flow at the chimney exit was improved and the ventilation rate was increased by 57.0% with this particular absorber arrangement. For a 2.8 m high open-ended solar chimney with a 0.84 m air gap, the improvement was 57%. It is advised to use a three-segment design because it is cost-effective.	[85]
Single spaced	Mixed configurations	The standard SC model has an area of (0.7 × 1) m2 with an air window on the northern wall of the room (0.3 × 0.3) m2 at a height of 0.5 m. ○ Two models were expanded in height by half of their original length (0.35 m); one was extended vertically (v.ext.), while the other was inclined at a 45° angle (i.ext.). ○ A combined model (com.) was created by combining the expanded chimney length and the inclusion of ○ a second window with the same area as the first window.			Numerically	The inclined and vertical extended chimneys increased the ventilation rate by 7.5% and 13%, respectively, in comparison to a traditional chimney type. The addition of a second window increased the air movement in the space, which led to a 3 °C difference in the room’s average air temperature and ambient air temperature as well as a 39% increase in ventilation rate.	[45]
			The conventional model	The chimney is extended vertically (v.ext.)
			The extended chimney is inclined at the angle of 45° (i.e.)	The extended chimney length combined with another window
Two typical floors	Mixed configurations	A series of SC configurations were investigated including: ○ The chimney’s overall length and width. ○ The inclined angle of the second-floor inlet. ○ The vertical to inclined section length ratio. ○ The inclined angle of the chimney.			Numerically	After the chimney channel’s width initially increased, the velocity decreased. Researchers found that 12:1 was the ideal length-to-width ratio. The flow rate inside the chimney decreased as the length ratio of the inclined part to the vertical section increased. The ideal inclination angle was discovered to be 4°.	[86]

A material with high thermal mass that can store thermal energy and release it later when solar energy is unavailable is frequently used to create the absorbing surface. Khosravi M, Fazelpour F, and Rosen MA [54] evaluated the improved design for the inclined SC to establish the most effective geometry for generating a high number of air changes per hour in the given scenario. The results revealed that when the length of the titled surface is sufficient enough, the inclination angle is considerable. Furthermore, compared to traditional designs, the inclination angle can increase the natural ventilation rate of the building by 24%. According to Hashim HS, Kassim MS, and Kadhim HH [45], when compared to a regular chimney model, inclined and vertical extended chimneys increased the ventilation rates by 7.5% and 13%, respectively. The room’s second window had increased airflow, which decreased the amount of heated air there. As a result, the ventilation rate increased by 39%, and the temperature difference between the average air room and the ambient air was 3 °C. The ideal inclination angle, which was 4 degrees from the horizontal, increased the mass flow rate, according to Wei D, Qirong Y, and Jincui Z [79]. Finally, the velocity distribution inside the chimney improved and the airflow rate increased as the chimney inclination angle increased.

The ideal inclination angle of a small-scale roof-top solar chimney for maximum ventilation effectiveness in the context of the roof’s incline was determined by Kong J, Niu J, and Lei CA [83]. Under diverse heat fluxes, a SC model was developed with inclination angles ranging from 30° to 90° concerning the horizontal plane. The results showed that the optimal inclination angle varied from 45° to 60° depending on the latitude and operating season. In addition, Bassiouny R and Korah NSA [80] investigated the chimney inclination angle. The ideal air gap width was between 0.1 and 0.35 m, with an inclination range of 45 to 75 degrees.

6.5. Materials and Configurations of Absorber Wall and Glazing Cover of SC

For improved SC performance, materials with higher thermal conductivity (like metal) or higher thermal mass (like concrete) can be taken into consideration. However, designers must also think about ways to reduce the radiant heat transfer into livable environments [21]. For instance, the thermal performance of a phase change material (PCM) integrated with SC has been examined in several studies. For instance, three charging modes—closed-fully charging, open-partially charging, and open-fully charging—have been studied by Liu S and Li Y [84]. According to the findings, when compared to a solar chimney without PCM, adding a PCM decreased the airflow while charging, but increased it during discharging. In the open-partly charging mode compared to the closed-fully charging mode, the mean airflow rate was lower during the phase shift period. To prevent unintentional warming of the room air, the interior surface of the storage wall should be insulated [50]. In terms of absorber wall configurations, computational investigations were accomplished on the thermal performance of four different absorber wall designs, fat corner, rounded corner, triangle corner, and trapeze corner [74], to find the best configuration. A triangular corner had a 50% higher energy efficiency than a trapeze corner, a 67% higher efficiency than a rounded corner, and a 2% higher efficiency than a fat corner. The SC’s triangular corner increased the air pressure and temperature, which maximized the air mass flow and enhanced the ventilation.

The glazing cover provides a higher flow rate via the chimney of approximately 6 ACH, which is higher than the required ventilation requirement rate. The glazing cover is made of concrete, gypsum board, and aluminum [57].

7. Discussion and Potential of Future Implications

Based on the previous analysis of the bibliometric analysis and a comprehensive review of various configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion, the following points discuss the potential and further implications of the integration of a SC with various configurations.

Further study is required to develop themes like “building design” of SC and its associated effects such as air quality and ventilation, in addition to “numerical analysis” and “optimization” in terms of hotspot topics and the potential for future consequences. Additionally, despite its importance, the most popular terms did not sufficiently apply the “geometric parameter” technique. Therefore, additional research is required to explore and implement such themes, which also call for ongoing incentives for future interdisciplinary collaboration. Additionally, previous studies have been based on single spaces, although promising investigations may lead to several applications including many zones and floors.

Figure 10 illustrates the topic dendrogram map that reflects the relationship between the various keywords associated with SC performance and air ventilation promotion using hierarchical clustering and hierarchical order. Such a map integrates 50 keywords with six clusters to explore how the topics are associated. The performance of SC as a passive strategy can be directly associated with a cluster of building designs with limited configurations and building forms (Table 2), in addition to clusters of air ventilation, cooling, and thermal performance through CFD tools. However, clusters related to the energy and power planets present are indirectly associated with the integration of SC with the design of buildings.

Figure 10. The topic dendrogram with the associated 50 keywords and six clusters using hierarchical clustering and hierarchical order.

Therefore, based on previous analysis and the hierarchical clustering of topic dendrogram map, the study discusses the potential and further implications of the integration of a SC with various configurations via the proposed conceptual framework as well as the limitations, hotspots, and potential for future implications.

Figure 11 illustrates the proposed framework that promotes the integration of the SC’s possible configuration parameters that provide not only the air ventilation, air quality, or thermal comfort, but also the energy consumption and carbon footprint, which reflect the SDGs. Various recent methods and numerical analysis, generative design, machine learning, and parametric tools, for instance, can provide such a framework, resulting in novel potential modeling, analysis, and investigation via diverse configurations. The proposed framework starts with identifying three phases to achieve the final design of the SC. The first phase is based on an analysis of outdoor microclimate conditions that can be associated with the orientation and form of the building, besides the outdoor aspect ratio, which can influence the performance of the SC. The second phase emphasizes determining the number of floors and the connected multi-zone of the building, which can also influence the configurations of the SC. Furthermore, phase three provides the configuration parameters of a SC that differ between the initial design of the SC or renovation of an exciting SC to enhance its performance based on specific parameters like the openings and patterns of the absorber wall and glazed wall, for instance. Such phases and investigations can be analyzed based on various numerical methods like simulation-based models including CFD-based models, energy balance models, data-driven models like parametric tools, and coupled models. Such a conceptual framework can provide various SDGs including good health and well-being, affordable and clean energy, sustainable cities and communities, and climate action. Various specialists associated with construction, building, and environmental sectors can implement such a framework and develop several implications including morphological indicators related to layout, glazed and absorber walls, and horizontal and vertical forms of the main core of the SC, for instance, a chimney with three venturi designs [87]. In addition, the proposed framework confirmed the results of the bibliometric analysis related to the further required attempts to provide several accurate investigations. Moreover, an enormous evolution in terms of future possibilities can be achieved with such an integration.

Figure 11. The proposed conceptual framework.

Regarding the limitations, numerous potential restrictions must be taken into account. First, database development, which is a crucial stage, served as the foundation for this investigation. On 1 January 2023, a search was conducted using a limited amount of keywords inside narrowly defined categories, producing specialized results that could not be generalized. Additionally, a significant number of publications were excluded from this analysis via the Scopus or WoS databases, which were based on three filters: categories, publication type, and language; or manual screening in accordance with the objectives and scope of the micro-scale, and eligibility to retain articles in relevance to the research topic.

This work strengthened the function of a SC in the design process as well as in research and academic consequences. The involvement of designers, mechanical engineers, atmospheric specialists, and programmers, among other fields, are required to enrich reducing energy consumption, provide carbon communities and public health, and environmental and social resilience.

8. Conclusions

Within the context of SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion based on configuration parameters, this study conducted a bibliometric analysis based on 320 filtered publications using the Biblioshiny and VOSviewer tools to visualize “co-occurrence”, “co-citation”, “co-authorship”, “bibliographic coupling”, and “citation” analyses. Moreover, the proposed conceptual framework was conducted to provide insights and possibilities into promoting numerous configuration parameters related to SC performance-driven air ventilation promotion, which serves as research guidance for designers and specialists toward the mitigation of climate change impacts and attaining the SDGs. Here are the conclusions that were drawn:

• In terms of trends and hotspots, “solar chimney”, “natural ventilation”, “CFD”, “solar energy”, and “thermal performance” indicate trending topics, hotspots, and frontiers concerning their effects. Additionally, additional research is required to develop essential topics like “numerical analysis” and “optimization”, in addition to “building design” of SC and its associated effects on air quality and ventilation. Additionally, despite its importance, the most popular terms did not sufficiently apply the “geometric parameter” technique. Thus, additional study is required to investigate and apply such issues.
• Based on an examination of the most frequently cited publications, overall, good consistency could be observed between the results of the co-citation for references and the co-occurrence of the analysis of the keyword. In addition, SC publications have provided optimization of the geometry, energy systems, and CFD simulations, which integrate a passive strategy to provide air ventilation and renewable systems to provide electricity via integration elements like solar collectors, chimney towers, and wind turbines.
• According to the authors’ impact regarding the overall total citation, the author Gan G, a Professor at the Institute of Building Technology, Department of Architecture and Building Technology, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK, received the most citations overall. The most productive authors are Driss Z, a Full Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National School of Engineers of Sfax, and Nguyen YQ, Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
• Renewable Energy, Energy and Buildings, and Solar Energy were the top three journals in the ranking. In addition, the results showed that China carried out 57 studies with 882 citations, Australia produced 17 papers with 488 citations, and India had 14 articles with 2108 citations.
• The proposed framework promotes the integration of the SC’s possible configuration parameters that provide the air ventilation, air quality or thermal comfort, energy consumption, and carbon footprint.
• Various recent methods and numerical analysis, generative design, machine learning, and parametric tools, for instance, can provide such a framework, resulting in novel potential modeling, analysis, and investigating via diverse configurations.
• Such phases and investigations can be analyzed based on various numerical methods like simulation-based models including CFD-based models, energy balance models, data-driven models like parametric tools, and coupled models.
• The conceptual framework can provide various SDGs including good health and well-being, affordable and clean energy, sustainable cities and communities, and climate action, which act toward the mitigation of climate change impacts.

Through promoting SC performance toward air ventilation and energy efficiency with the associated configuration parameters, this research helps mitigate the effects of urbanization and climate change. In order to optimize the SC performance in response to linked global environmental concerns, more work is required to generate additional configurations and consequences that take generative design into account.