The Application of Critical Power, the Work Capacity above Critical Power (W′), and Its Reconstitution: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Implications for Cycling Training Prescription
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Assumptions of the Critical Power Model
- The aerobic supply of energy is unlimited for any duration.
- Cycling efficiency remains constant.
- Power output is limited solely by duration and tends towards infinity as time duration approaches 0 s.
- All power output demands up to CP are immediately and constantly fulfilled by aerobic mechanisms up to that limit.
- At exhaustion W′ is fully depleted, i.e., W′ equals 0 J.
3. Methods for Determining Critical Power and W′
3.1. Constant Work Rate Tests
3.2. Three-Minute All-Out Test
3.3. Ramp All-Out Test
4. W′ Reconstitution
5. The Application of Critical Power and W′ for Training Prescription
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Participants | Protocol Description * | Model † | Principal Findings in Relation to W′ Reconstitution |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bartram, et al. [108] | 4 male; elite cyclists | Intermittent: 30 s work/60 s recovery + open ended severe to finish | Skiba2 | Skiba2 underestimated W′ reconstitution. New W′Tau formula proposed for elite cyclists |
Broxterman, et al. [106] | 6 male | Handgrip repetitions. Tension/relaxation of 50% and 20% duty cycles | Skiba1 | Validated the Skiba1 model over a duty cycle which authors suggested as a proxy for the contraction and relaxation during a pedal revolution. |
Caen, et al. [110] | 11 male; physical exercise (PE) students | 12 trials: 4 and 8 min exhaustive bouts, with 2,4,6 min recoveries | Skiba1 | Skiba1 underestimated W′ reconstitution more so at 2-min recovery, less so at 6 min. Large individual variations in W′Tau. W′ reconstitution affected by preceding depletion rate, slower depletion = less reconstitution |
Chidnok, et al. [93] | 7 male; recreationally active | Intermittent: 60 s work/30 s recovery in differing domains | n/a | No recovery in severe domain. Recovery rate of W′ slower than expenditure in relation to critical power (CP). |
Chidnok, et al. [96] | 9 male; recreationally active | Single leg knee extensions. intermittent 60 s work/18, 30, 48 s recovery | n/a | W′ reconstitution increases with recovery duration. Phosphocreatine and pH levels were always the same at exhaustion. Phosphocreatine recovery correlated to W′ reconstitution but was faster. Phosphocreatine recovery slowed as exercise session progressed. |
Chorley, et al. [45] | 20 (19 male, 1 female; 9 trained, 11 untrained) | Repeated ramps to exhaustion with 2 min recoveries | Skiba1 | Skiba1 did not fit the protocol, overestimate W′ at exhaustion and underestimating reconstitution during recoveries. W′ reconstitution slowed with repeated bouts of exhaustive exercise. |
Chorley, et al. [99] | 20 male; (9 trained, 11 untrained) | Repeated ramps to exhaustion with 2 min recoveries | Skiba1 | Assessment of anthropometric and physiological relationships with W′ reconstitution and its slowing following repeated bouts. |
Felippe, et al. [50] | 10 male; recreationally active | 2 × 6 min constant work rate (CWR) exhaustive bouts separated by 3, 6, 15 min recoveries | n/a | W′ reconstitution compared with neuromuscular recovery. Recovery of voluntary activation faster than W′, no difference between time constants of W′ and maximal voluntary contraction. |
Ferguson, et al. [94] | 6 male; recreationally active | 6 min CWR exhaustive bout then 3, 6, 15 min recoveries | n/a | W′ reconstitution found to be curvilinear. Half-time of W′ reconstitution was faster than that of blood lactate but slower than that of oxygen uptake (a proxy for phosphocreatine reconstitution) |
Morton and Billat [92] | 6 male; well trained | Running: intermittent 60, 180, 30 s work, 60, 180 s recovery | n/a | Produced original model of linear W′ reconstitution at same rate as expenditure in relation to CP. Established W′ reconstitution occurred during recovery due to extended distances covered. |
Shearman, et al. [107] | 11 male; well trained | Intermittent: 60 s work/30 s recovery | Skiba1 | Validated skiba1 in hypoxia with proviso that CP and W′ were also measured at same level of hypoxia |
Skiba, et al. [101] | 7 male; recreationally active | Intermittent: 60 s work/30 s recovery | Skiba1 | Creation of Skiba1 W′bal model based on intermittent exercise to exhaustion, together with generic Tau equation based on CP. Validated against single rider in a race with W′bal of 1.5 kJ at retirement from race. |
Skiba, et al. [103] | 8 (6 male, 2 female) 8 well trained triathletes | Assessment of training and race data | Skiba1 | Validation of Skiba1 on training and race data to detect the point of exhaustion. When exhaustion is set at W′bal = 1.5 kJ prediction of exhaustion was 80% appropriately classified as exhausted and 88% appropriately classified as non-exhausted. Recommendation to use 1.5 kJ as practical level of exhaustion. |
Skiba, et al. [105] | 10 (6 male, 4 female); recreationally active | Intermittent: 60, 40, 20 s work/30, 20, 10, 5 s recovery | Skiba1 | Skiba1 underestimated W′ reconstitution, more so with reduced work and/or recovery durations. Large individual variations in reconstitution rate hence recommendations to individualize Tau. |
Skiba, et al. [102] | 11 (5 male, 6 female); recreationally active | Cycle and single leg knee extensions. 3 min CWR exhaustive bout then 1, 2, 5, 7 min recoveries | Skiba2 | Skiba2 differential model produced allowing real time W′bal prediction. Large inter and intra individual variations in reconstitution rate observed. |
Sreedhara, et al. [104] | 7 male; trained | 120 s bout to deplete 50% of W′, followed by 2, 6, 15 min recoveries, followed by 3-min all-out | Skiba2 | Skiba2 overestimated W′ reconstitution, based on the estimated 50% of W′ expended during initial bout. W′ reconstitution did not increase from 6 min to 15 min recovery hence W′ reconstitution was not exponential. |
Townsend, et al. [56] | 9 male; trained | Intermittent: 40–60 s work/30–60 s recovery | Skiba1 and Skiba2 | Produced a modification equation for CP based on altitude for use in Skiba models to allow W′ reconstitution to be predicted at increasing altitude. |
Vanhatalo and Jones [40] | 7 male; recreationally active | 30 s sprint, followed by 2- or 15- min recovery then 3-min all-out test | n/a | Prior severe sprint exercise (extent of W′ expenditure unknown) depletes W′ but not CP. W′ reconstruction of 79% after 2 min and fully recovered by 15 min |
Vinetti, et al. [111] | 7 male; recreationally active | Incremental ramp with steps 30–300 s duration with recovery between each step of 0–180 s. | n/a | Extensive mathematical representation of discontinuous ramp exercise. |
Study | Participants | Functional Threshold Power Test Method | Validated Against * | Mean Functional Threshold Power (W) | Comparison Mean Power Output (W) | Significantly Different | Correlation Coefficient (r) | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barranco-Gil, et al. [132] | 15 male, well trained | 20-min test | RCP | 284 to 286 | 344 ± 32 | Yes | 0.86 to 0.93 | Range of FTP and correlation coefficients due to 3 warm up techniques providing Functional Threshold Power (FTP) values of 286 ± 26 W; 284 ± 26 W; 286 ± 32 W |
Borszcz, et al. [122] | 23 male, trained | 20-min test | IAT | 236 ± 38 | 344 ± 32 | No | 0.61 | Graded test with large 40 W increments used to determine IAT |
60-min test | IAT | 231 ± 33 | 237 ± 29 | No | 0.76 | |||
Gavin, et al. [129] | 7 male, trained and well trained | 8-min test | OBLA | 301 ± 13 | 293 ± 9 | No (see notes) | 0.70 | OBLA selected from three other Lactate measurements as most appropriate comparison for FTP |
Inglis, et al. [124] | 18 (12 male 6 female), trained and well trained | 20-min test | MLSS | 261 ± 45 | 243 ± 48 | Yes | 0.96 | |
Jeffries, et al. [125] | 20 male, well trained | 20-min test | LT (Dmax) | 266 ± 42 | 221 ± 25 | Yes | 0.80 | |
LT (modified Dmax) | 266 ± 42 | 238 ± 32 | Yes | 0.75 | ||||
OBLA | 266 ± 42 | 268 ± 30 | No | 0.88 | authors noted that despite no significant difference between FTP and OBLA, large random error made in individual data meant that FTP was not equivalent to OBLA | |||
IAT | 266 ± 42 | 244 ± 33 | Yes | 0.85 | ||||
Klitzke Borszcz, et al. [123] | 15 male, trained and well trained | 20-min test | MLSS | 252 ± 23 | 248 ± 25 | No | 0.91 | Nine out of 12 participants had difference between MLSS and FTP of 5% or more |
Lillo-Bevia, et al. [133] | 11 male, trained | 20-min test | MLSS | 262 ± 19 | 250 ± 16 | Yes | 0.95 | |
MacInnis, et al. [127] | 8 male, well trained | 60-min test | CP | 309 ± 26 | 325 ± 29 | Yes | 0.91 | Critical power derived from a 4-min and 20-min test, the latter of which is longer than generally accepted for CP testing. |
McGrath, et al. [128] | 19 (12 male 7 female) well trained | 20-min test | LT (Dmax) | 259 ± 40 | 246 ± 38 | Not reported | 0.94 | authors noted large limits of agreement meaning that FTP was not equivalent to Lactate threshold |
Morgan, et al. [131] | 12 male, trained | 20-min test | LT (Dmax) | 278 ± 42 | 275 ± 40 | No | 0.92 | authors noted that despite no significant difference between FTP and CP, large limits of agreement meant that FTP was not equivalent to CP |
Sanders, et al. [130] | 19 male, well trained | 8-min test | LT (DMax) | 341 ± 33 | 279 ± 20 | Very largely different | Not reported | |
LT (modified Dmax) | 341 ± 33 | 319 ± 29 | Moderately different | Not reported | ||||
OBLA | 341 ± 33 | 319 ± 25 | Moderately different | Not reported | ||||
Valenzuela, et al. [126] | 20 male, cyclists | 20-min test | LT (modified Dmax) | 240 ± 35 | 246 ± 24 | No | 0.90 | |
Subset: 11 recreational cyclists | ≈217 | ≈232 | Yes | 0.88 | subgroup power outputs are derived from mean body mass × w/kg for each subgroup as FTP and LT subgroup means are not quoted in the study. | |||
Subset: 9 well trained cyclists | ≈269 W | ≈265 | No | 095 |
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Chorley, A.; Lamb, K.L. The Application of Critical Power, the Work Capacity above Critical Power (W′), and Its Reconstitution: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Implications for Cycling Training Prescription. Sports 2020, 8, 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports8090123
Chorley A, Lamb KL. The Application of Critical Power, the Work Capacity above Critical Power (W′), and Its Reconstitution: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Implications for Cycling Training Prescription. Sports. 2020; 8(9):123. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports8090123
Chicago/Turabian StyleChorley, Alan, and Kevin L. Lamb. 2020. "The Application of Critical Power, the Work Capacity above Critical Power (W′), and Its Reconstitution: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Implications for Cycling Training Prescription" Sports 8, no. 9: 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports8090123