Changes in Land Cover and Urban Sprawl in Ireland From a Comparative Perspective Over 1990–2012
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Corine Land Cover Data and Methodology
- Urbanisation (LCF1) refers to transformation of land, predominantly but not exclusively, agricultural land and forests, into artificial surfaces. These artificial surfaces include areas destined for buildings, industrial facilities and infrastructure, but also artificial green spaces (e.g., parks);
- Intensification of agriculture (LCF2) refers to the transition of land from low-intensity agricultural use (pastures [2.3] and heterogeneous agricultural areas [2.4]) to high intensity use (arable land [2.1] and permanent crops [2.2]). High intensity use is thereby understood as being associated with a higher use of artificial fertilisers, weed killers, fungicides and pesticides, as well as the use of modern machinery and techniques, such as irrigation and drainage;
- Extensification of agriculture (LCF3) is the converse of intensification (LCF2). Hence, LCF3 refers to the transition from high to low-intensity forms of agriculture;
- Afforestation (LCF4) is the re-creation of forest land either naturally or by planting;
- Deforestation (LCF5) is the transition of forest land into non-forest land;
- Water bodies construction and management (LCF6) refers to the creation of water bodies;
- Other (LCF7) represents other non-classified land change flows.
2.2. Methodology for Distance-Based Analysis
2.3. Developing a Test for Sprawl
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Land Cover Trends in Ireland
3.2. Sparseness of New Artificial Areas
3.3. Sprawl Test Results
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1. | Throughout this article, Ireland refers to the Republic of Ireland. |
2. | We use the time index t − 1 to indicate the previous observation. For example, the observation before 2011 is 2006. |
3. | We thank Edgar Morgenroth for providing the motorway distance estimates to us. |
4. | In this section, Other Europe includes the following countries (using iso3 codes): AUT, BEL, BGR, CZE, DEU, DNK, ESP, EST, FRA, GBR, GRC, HRV, HUN, IRL, ITA, LTU, LVA, NLD, POL, PRT, ROU, SRB, SVK, SVN, TUR. |
5. | Due to data constraints, Other Europe uses a reduced sample including AUT, BEL, BGR, CZE, DEU, DNK, ESP, FRA, GRC, HRV, HUN, IRL, ITA, LTU, LUX, LVA, NLD, POL, PRT, ROU, SVK. |
CLC (level 1) | CLC (level 2) |
---|---|
1 Artificial surfaces | 1.1 Urban fabric 1.2 Industrial, commercial and transport units 1.3 Mine, dump and construction sites 1.4 Artificial, non-agricultural vegetated areas |
2 Agricultural areas | 2.1 Arable land 2.2 Permanent crops 2.3 Pastures 2.4 Heterogeneous agricultural areas |
3 Forests & semi-natural areas | 3.1 Forest 3.2 Scrub and/or herbaceous vegetation associations 3.3 Open spaces with little or no vegetation |
4 Wetlands | 4.1 Inland wetlands 4.2 Coastal wetlands |
5 Water bodies | 5.1 Continental waters 5.2 Marine waters |
To | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
From | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.4 | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 5.1 | 5.2 |
1.1 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
1.2 | 7 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 |
1.3 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
1.4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
2.1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
2.2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
2.3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
2.4 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
3.1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
3.2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 5 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
3.3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
4.1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 0 | 7 | 6 | 7 |
4.2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 6 | 7 |
5.1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 7 |
5.2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 0 |
Obs. | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population | 10,214 | 1324.6 | 2171.1 | 66 | 38,894 |
Buildings | 10,323 | 480.9 | 694.6 | 5 | 8615 |
Commuting (minutes) | 10,214 | 26.1 | 4.4 | 11.68 | 44.5 |
Unemployment rate (%) | 10,214 | 11.6 | 7.1 | 0 | 56.3 |
Drive time to motorway (minutes) | 6802 | 47.5 | 40.4 | 1.03 | 212.6 |
Broadband use (%) | 10,214 | 43.1 | 25.9 | 0 | 95.9 |
Foreign residents (%) | 10,214 | 2.6 | 3.1 | 0 | 41.5 |
Ireland | Other Europe | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1990–2000 | 2000–2006 | 2006–2012 | 1990–2012 | 1990–2000 | 2000–2006 | 2006–2012 | 1990–2012 | |
Share of transformed (%) | ||||||||
Urbanisation (LCF 1) | 5.58 | 12.79 | 1.77 | 6.32 | 12.43 | 14.30 | 12.62 | 12.91 |
of which | ||||||||
Urban (1.1) | 2.70 | 6.30 | 0.37 | 3.01 | 5.31 | 3.30 | 1.69 | 3.93 |
Industrial (1.2) | 0.60 | 1.82 | 0.86 | 0.87 | 3.25 | 3.48 | 3.66 | 3.41 |
Mines, etc. (1.3) | 0.95 | 3.36 | 0.49 | 1.33 | 3.01 | 6.68 | 6.75 | 4.80 |
Artificial green (1.4) | 1.32 | 1.30 | 0.04 | 1.11 | 0.86 | 0.84 | 0.52 | 0.77 |
Intensification (LCF 2) | 41.50 | 0.25 | 14.45 | 29.39 | 14.03 | 10.00 | 9.56 | 11.97 |
Extensification (LCF 3) | 13.80 | 0.25 | 26.44 | 13.27 | 12.86 | 3.60 | 7.43 | 9.36 |
Afforestation (LCF 4) | 26.20 | 56.06 | 30.90 | 32.58 | 31.65 | 22.50 | 26.58 | 28.26 |
Deforestation (LCF 5) | 12.57 | 28.28 | 22.16 | 17.07 | 23.97 | 43.17 | 36.60 | 31.58 |
Water bodies (LCF 6) | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 2.54 | 1.80 | 2.22 | 2.29 |
Other (LCF 7) | 0.32 | 2.03 | 3.98 | 1.23 | 1.59 | 3.42 | 3.99 | 2.62 |
De-urbanisation (LCF 8) | 0.00 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.11 | 0.93 | 1.21 | 1.01 | 1.01 |
Transformed | ||||||||
Area (km2) | 5459.60 | 1579.48 | 1343.18 | 8382.25 | 95,532.21 | 42,382.14 | 46,939.74 | 184,854.09 |
Area/year | 545.96 | 263.25 | 223.86 | 381.01 | 9553.22 | 7063.69 | 7823.29 | 8402.46 |
Share of total (%) | 7.76 | 2.24 | 1.91 | 11.91 | 2.18 | 0.97 | 1.07 | 4.23 |
Urbanisation | ||||||||
Area (km2) | 304.44 | 201.97 | 23.75 | 530.17 | 11,874.89 | 6059.65 | 5922.39 | 23,856.93 |
Area/year | 30.44 | 33.66 | 3.96 | 24.10 | 1187.49 | 1009.94 | 987.07 | 1084.41 |
Share of total (%) | 0.43 | 0.29 | 0.03 | 0.75 | 0.27 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.55 |
Total area (km2) | 70,366.7 | 4,373,315.7 |
Period | All | Adjacent | Distance above (in %) | Average | Median | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Count | Count | in % | 20 m | 200 m | 2 km | All | Non-Adjacent | ||
Ireland | 1990–2000 | 1137 | 686 | 60.33 | 39.40 | 34.12 | 14.86 | 837.99 | 1146.38 |
2000–2006 | 1564 | 944 | 60.36 | 38.43 | 33.12 | 15.03 | 845.97 | 1359.54 | |
2006–2012 | 473 | 384 | 81.18 | 17.97 | 16.28 | 3.81 | 295.39 | 702.71 | |
Total | 3174 | 2014 | 63.45 | 35.73 | 30.97 | 13.30 | 761.06 | 1172.13 | |
Other Europe | 1990–2000 | 43,431 | 31844 | 73.32 | 25.78 | 22.01 | 5.54 | 389.70 | 775.76 |
2000–2006 | 42,470 | 25688 | 60.49 | 36.71 | 30.97 | 9.15 | 606.50 | 755.59 | |
2006–2012 | 43,263 | 25904 | 59.88 | 38.54 | 31.98 | 8.71 | 556.76 | 732.43 | |
Total | 129,164 | 83436 | 64.60 | 33.65 | 28.30 | 7.79 | 516.94 | 753.47 |
(i) | (ii) | (iii) | (iv) | (v) | (vi) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable: Change in | ||||||
Population | Buildings | Population | Buildings | Population | Buildings | |
Lagged level | −0.00277 *** | −0.106 *** | −0.845 *** | −0.855 *** | −0.879 *** | −0.950 *** |
(0.000673) | (0.00390) | (0.0140) | (0.00529) | (0.0171) | (0.00599) | |
−0.100 *** | 0.00213 | −0.110 *** | 0.00171 | |||
(0.0154) | (0.00912) | (0.0154) | (0.00836) | |||
−0.00674 *** | −0.0123 *** | −0.00291 | −0.00117 | |||
(0.00176) | (0.000948) | (0.00191) | (0.000934) | |||
−0.0784 ** | −0.00475 | |||||
(0.0257) | (0.0132) | |||||
0.0348 *** | 0.0672 *** | |||||
(0.00708) | (0.00365) | |||||
0.243 | −0.171 *** | |||||
(0.187) | (0.0514) | |||||
Observations | 6805 | 6882 | 6728 | 6728 | 6728 | 6728 |
Fixed effects | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
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Ahrens, A.; Lyons, S. Changes in Land Cover and Urban Sprawl in Ireland From a Comparative Perspective Over 1990–2012. Land 2019, 8, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8010016
Ahrens A, Lyons S. Changes in Land Cover and Urban Sprawl in Ireland From a Comparative Perspective Over 1990–2012. Land. 2019; 8(1):16. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8010016
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhrens, Achim, and Seán Lyons. 2019. "Changes in Land Cover and Urban Sprawl in Ireland From a Comparative Perspective Over 1990–2012" Land 8, no. 1: 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8010016
APA StyleAhrens, A., & Lyons, S. (2019). Changes in Land Cover and Urban Sprawl in Ireland From a Comparative Perspective Over 1990–2012. Land, 8(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8010016