A Decision-Support Tool to Augment Global Mountain Protection and Conservation, including a Case Study from Western Himalaya
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Nature-Based Solutions: A Framework for Protected and Conserved Areas
2.2. The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
2.3. Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) and Mountain KBAs
2.4. Biodiversity Hotspots
2.5. IUCN Red Lists for Species and Ecosystems
2.6. Mountain Ecosystems: Classification and Level of Protection
2.7. Mountain Moisture/Vegetation Classes: Coverage and Protection
2.8. Decision-Support Tool for Prioritizing Mountain Areas for Protection and Conservation
2.8.1. Step 1: Identification of Inadequately Protected Mountain KBAs
Attribute | Data Source |
Protected areas | World Database of Protected Areas [48] |
KBA data and maps | World Database of KBAs [50] |
KBA and protected area status | Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool [51,52] |
Quantification of global coverage of KBAs by protected areas | Data held by IUCN WCPA Mountains Specialist Group [51] |
2.8.2. Step 2: Identification of Appropriate Countries for Heightened Consideration
Attribute | Data Source |
Suitability of country to proceed with assessment | Assessing the suitability of a country is rather subjective. Guidance of the relevant IUCN regional representatives and protected area experts should therefore be sought. |
Availability of in-country expertise for assessment of KBAs | Regional in-country expertise and knowledge is crucial for accurate validation of the protection status of KBAs in step 3 and to assess and rank other protected area values in step 4. The IUCN WCPA Mountains Specialist Group regional representatives will determine if such support is available. If this expertise is not available or accessible at this stage, the assessment of KBAs in that country will be set aside, until adequate capacity becomes available. |
2.8.3. Step 3: Validation of Protection and Conservation Status of Mountain KBAs
Attribute | Data Source |
Protection and conservation status | Protected area specialists and regional representatives of the IUCN WCPA Mountains Specialist Group to assist the validation of protection and conservation status [40]. |
2.8.4. Step 4: Ranking of Priority Mountain KBAs by Importance, Urgency, and Viability
Attribute | Data Source |
Presence of inadequately protected world ecosystems | [17] |
Opportunity to enhance connectivity | IUCN–WCPA Guidelines for Conserving Connectivity through Ecological Networks and Corridors [60]; Conservation Corridors [61] |
Presence of flagship or iconic species or ecological communities | A flagship species is a charismatic species selected to act as an ambassador, icon, or symbol for a defined habitat. Iconic species or ecological communities may be internationally recognized or determined by regional expertise. The snow leopard is an example for High Asia [62]. |
Presence of Red List species | [55] |
Presence of Red List ecosystems | [57] |
Wide range of elevation gradients | Qualitative assessment based on local knowledge and expertise; see also [23] |
Conservation of KBAs would provide benefits to local mountain communities, mainly through the protection of critical resources and provision of ecosystem services | IUCN–WCPA Tools for Measuring, Modelling, and Valuing Ecosystem Services [63] |
Protection of cultural sites, cultural heritage, and cultural landscapes | Qualitative assessment based on regional and in-country cultural heritage information and World Heritage Cultural Sites [64] |
Ecotourism opportunities that benefit mountain communities | Qualitative assessment based on local knowledge and inputs from the tourism industry and ecotourism strategies; IUCN–WCPA Tourism and Visitor Management in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Sustainability [65] |
Peace building across borders | Qualitative assessment based on local knowledge in transboundary scenarios; IUCN Commission of Environment, Economic, and Social Policy (CEESP) and IUCN–WCPA Global Transboundary Conservation Network Transboundary Diagnostic Tool [66] |
Vulnerability to climate change and/or opportunity to mitigate the impacts of climate change | Qualitative assessment based on regional knowledge and on climate change mitigation and adaptation plans. |
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) | Qualitative assessment based on regional knowledge and risk assessments; Reducing Vulnerability: The Role of Protected Areas in Mitigating Natural Disasters [67]; IUCN–WCPA Natural Solutions: Protected Areas as Tools for Disaster Risk Reduction [68]; IUCN–WCPA Helping Nature Help Us: Transforming Disaster Risk Reduction Through Ecosystem Management [69]; IUCN–WCPA Safe Havens: Protected Areas for Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation [70] |
2.8.5. Step 5: Identification of Priority Mountain KBAs Located in Biodiversity Hotspots
Attribute | Data Source |
Biodiversity Hotspots | Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund [54] |
2.8.6. Step 6: Identification of Priority KBAs in Developing Countries
Attribute | Data Source |
Developing versus developed countries | The UNDP Human Development Index [71]; International Monetary Fund’s World Economic Outlook Database [72] |
2.9. Case Study: Western Himalaya Case Study Area
2.10. Application, Scale, and Limitations
3. Results
3.1. The Decision-Support Tool in General
- Category A1: First-priority mountain KBAs situated within biodiversity hotspots in developing countries;
- Category A2: First-priority mountain KBAs situated within biodiversity hotspots in developed countries;
- Category B1: Second-priority mountain KBAs situated outside biodiversity hotspots in developing countries;
- Category B2: Second-priority mountain KBAs situated outside biodiversity hotspots in developed countries.
3.2. Western Himalaya Case Study Area
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mountain Terrestrial Ecosystems | Area (km2) | % Protected IUCN Cat. I–IV | % Protected IUCN Cat. I–VI | Area Protected (km2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boreal Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 1530 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Boreal Desert Grassland on Mountains | 1803 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Cool Temperate Desert Grassland on Mountains | 33,683 | 0.006 | 0.006 | 2 |
Polar Desert Grassland on Mountains | 951 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 1 |
Warm Temperate Desert Forest on Mountains | 108 | 0.05 | 0.66 | 1 |
Warm Temperate Desert Shrubland on Mountains | 23,376 | 2.15 | 2.68 | 626 |
Cool Temperate Dry Grassland on Mountains | 826,432 | 1.4 | 3.31 | 27,355 |
Tropical Desert Forest on Mountains | 581 | 0 | 3.34 | 19 |
Tropical Desert Shrubland on Mountains | 10,054 | 0.6 | 3.34 | 336 |
Polar Desert Snow and Ice on Mountains | 11 | 0 | 3.92 | 0.4 |
Warm Temperate Dry Grassland on Mountains | 480,653 | 1.63 | 5.79 | 27,830 |
Tropical Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 401,978 | 2.87 | 6.17 | 24,802 |
Polar Dry Grassland on Mountains | 940,507 | 3.26 | 6.66 | 62,638 |
Subtropical Desert Forest on Mountains | 602 | 4.09 | 7.15 | 43 |
Cool Temperate Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 98,924 | 5.24 | 7.36 | 7281 |
Warm Temperate Desert Grassland on Mountains | 2500 | 5.53 | 7.62 | 191 |
Subtropical Moist Grassland on Mountains | 129,111 | 1.97 | 7.93 | 10,239 |
Boreal Dry Grassland on Mountains | 476,082 | 6.42 | 8.08 | 38,467 |
Cool Temperate Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 749,317 | 4.97 | 8.64 | 64,741 |
Warm Temperate Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 201,681 | 3.64 | 8.88 | 17,909 |
Cool Temperate Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 591,941 | 6.19 | 9.02 | 53,393 |
Warm Temperate Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 834,991 | 2.74 | 9.17 | 76,569 |
Warm Temperate Moist Grassland on Mountains | 176,172 | 2.2 | 9.35 | 16,472 |
Tropical Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 6893 | 4.27 | 10.09 | 696 |
Tropical Moist Grassland on Mountains | 43,999 | 3.27 | 10.35 | 4554 |
Cool Temperate Dry Forest on Mountains | 630,661 | 7.11 | 10.46 | 65,967 |
Subtropical Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 525,318 | 4.43 | 10.53 | 55,316 |
Boreal Moist Forest on Mountains | 3,544,054 | 7.5 | 10.74 | 380,631 |
Cool Temperate Desert Shrubland on Mountains | 11,810 | 2.06 | 10.83 | 1279 |
Subtropical Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 547,647 | 3.33 | 11.55 | 63,253 |
Cool Temperate Desert Forest on Mountains | 19 | 6.09 | 11.73 | 2 |
Boreal Dry Forest on Mountains | 894,446 | 6.88 | 11.82 | 105,724 |
Boreal Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 323,358 | 7.86 | 12.04 | 38,932 |
Boreal Dry Snow and Ice on Mountains | 1201 | 5.75 | 12.22 | 147 |
Warm Temperate Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 1,045,259 | 5.12 | 12.46 | 130,239 |
Polar Dry Snow and Ice on Mountains | 60,407 | 6.88 | 12.61 | 7617 |
Polar Moist Grassland on Mountains | 722,899 | 8.59 | 12.95 | 93,615 |
Tropical Desert Grassland on Mountains | 2557 | 1.31 | 13.13 | 336 |
Tropical Dry Grassland on Mountains | 111,453 | 5.01 | 13.15 | 14,656 |
Cool Temperate Dry Snow and Ice on Mountains | 549 | 9.2 | 13.25 | 73 |
Boreal Moist Grassland on Mountains | 356,929 | 8.56 | 13.99 | 49,934 |
Subtropical Dry Grassland on Mountains | 254,297 | 3.5 | 15.1 | 38,399 |
Warm Temperate Moist Forest on Mountains | 2,265,851 | 7.06 | 15.43 | 349,621 |
Tropical Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 364,302 | 5.66 | 15.61 | 56,868 |
Polar Desert Shrubland on Mountains | 7645 | 2.96 | 15.81 | 1209 |
Warm Temperate Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 158,965 | 4.93 | 16.06 | 25,530 |
Polar Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 464,152 | 7.69 | 16.13 | 74,868 |
Boreal Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 699,650 | 9.9 | 16.17 | 113,133 |
Tropical Dry Forest on Mountains | 306,806 | 7.01 | 16.6 | 50,930 |
Polar Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 81,709 | 9.9 | 17.33 | 14,160 |
Boreal Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 584,985 | 12.59 | 18.57 | 108,632 |
Tropical Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 201,410 | 7.16 | 18.63 | 37,523 |
Boreal Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 95,461 | 8.34 | 18.87 | 18,013 |
Polar Dry Forest on Mountains | 34,626 | 15.78 | 18.91 | 6548 |
Tropical Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 311,581 | 7.35 | 19.15 | 59,668 |
Subtropical Dry Forest on Mountains | 753,774 | 5.61 | 19.68 | 148,342 |
Subtropical Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 999,352 | 6.14 | 21.03 | 210,164 |
Subtropical Moist Forest on Mountains | 3,012,368 | 10.6 | 21.35 | 643,141 |
Cool Temperate Moist Grassland on Mountains | 439,006 | 8.43 | 21.44 | 94,123 |
Polar Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 10,977 | 7.79 | 21.79 | 2392 |
Warm Temperate Dry Forest on Mountains | 561,636 | 5.6 | 21.84 | 122,661 |
Polar Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 168,806 | 12.09 | 22.24 | 37,542 |
Cool Temperate Moist Forest on Mountains | 2,854,983 | 12.24 | 22.52 | 642,942 |
Subtropical Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 505,825 | 13.3 | 23.74 | 120,083 |
Warm Temperate Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 11,611 | 10.4 | 24.21 | 2811 |
Polar Desert Forest on Mountains | 30 | 6.66 | 24.29 | 7 |
Polar Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 950,754 | 18.97 | 25.81 | 245,390 |
Subtropical Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 7962 | 8.93 | 26.05 | 2074 |
Subtropical Desert Grassland on Mountains | 8759 | 15.21 | 29.25 | 2562 |
Tropical Moist Forest on Mountains | 2,076,010 | 12.1 | 30.11 | 625,087 |
Polar Moist Forest on Mountains | 179,170 | 19.81 | 30.56 | 54,754 |
Subtropical Desert Shrubland on Mountains | 20,822 | 22.38 | 32.66 | 6800 |
Cool Temperate Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 275,865 | 22.13 | 37.88 | 104,498 |
Cool Temperate Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 139,267 | 25.79 | 38.85 | 54,105 |
Boreal Moist Snow and Ice on Mountains | 32,729 | 36.21 | 39.67 | 12,984 |
Polar Moist Snow and Ice on Mountains | 298,440 | 33.44 | 42.67 | 127,344 |
Cool Temperate Moist Snow and Ice on Mountains | 10,711 | 54.78 | 60.09 | 6436 |
Total | 33,962,744 | 5,663,230 |
Moisture/Vegetation Classes | Size (km2) | % of Global Total Area of Mountains | Area Protected (km2) | % Protection |
---|---|---|---|---|
Desert Snow and Ice on Mountains | 11 | 0.00003 | 0.43 | 3.9 |
Desert Forest on Mountains | 1340 | 0.00395 | 73 | 5.4 |
Desert Grassland on Mountains | 50,253 | 0.14797 | 3091 | 6.2 |
Dry Snow and Ice on Mountains | 62,157 | 0.18302 | 7836 | 12.6 |
Desert Shrubland on Mountains | 73,707 | 0.21702 | 10,250 | 13.9 |
Moist Snow and Ice on Mountains | 341,880 | 1.00663 | 146,764 | 42.9 |
Desert Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 1,183,239 | 3.48393 | 204,532 | 17.3 |
Dry Grassland on Mountains | 3,089,424 | 9.09651 | 209,345 | 6.8 |
Moist Grassland on Mountains | 1,868,116 | 5.50049 | 268,937 | 14.4 |
Dry Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 3,321,443 | 9.77967 | 343,165 | 10.3 |
Moist Shrubland on Mountains | 2,030,014 | 5.97718 | 373,542 | 18.4 |
Moist Sparsely or Nonvegetated on Mountains | 1,701,472 | 5.00982 | 413,707 | 24.3 |
Dry Shrubland on Mountains | 3,125,303 | 9.20215 | 485,638 | 15.5 |
Dry Forest on Mountains | 3,181,949 | 9.36894 | 500,172 | 15.7 |
Moist Forest on Mountains | 13,932,436 | 41.02270 | 2,696,176 | 19.4 |
Total Area | 33,962,744 | 5,663,229 | 16.7 |
Categories for Priority Consideration for Enhanced Protection Status | Categories for No Further Action Unless Circumstances Substantially Change | Categories Indicating That Adequate Protection Status Is Already Achieved |
---|---|---|
Category A1: List of ranked first-priority mountain KBAs occurring in developing countries (and within biodiversity hotspots). | Category E: mountain KBAs <30% protected but in unstable areas or with no effective system or capacity for protected area governance in place. No further consideration unless circumstances change. | Category C: mountain KBAs >80% protected; no further action for now; however, management effectiveness evaluation may be prudent. |
Category A2: List of ranked first-priority mountain KBAs occurring in developed countries (and within biodiversity hotspots). | Category F: mountain KBAs <30% protected but no IUCN WCPA Mountains Specialist Group contacts to assess steps 3 and 4. Mountains Specialist Group to seek members that can evaluate KBAs in these countries; Otherwise, no further action. | Category D: mountain KBAs >30% but <80% protected; reserve list for consideration in later stages of project. |
Category B1: List of ranked second priority mountain KBAs occurring in developing countries (and not within biodiversity hotspots). | Category G: OECMs, Territories of Life or other arrangements in place (i.e., not registered on the WDPA) or adequately protected mountain KBAs or mountain KBAs not threatened. No further action. | |
Category B2: List of ranked second priority mountain KBAs occurring in developed countries (and not within biodiversity hotspots). |
Country | Mountain KBAs | Mountain KBAs 80–100% Protected | Mountain KBAs 30–80% Protected | Mountain KBAs <30% Protected |
---|---|---|---|---|
India | 317 | 51 | 65 | 201 |
Nepal | 23 | 12 | 3 | 8 |
China | 419 | 22 | 30 | 367 |
Total | 759 | 85 | 98 | 576 |
Country | Mountain KBAs in WHCSA | Mountain KBAs 80–100% Protected | Mountain KBAs 30–80% Protected | Mountain KBAs <30% Protected |
---|---|---|---|---|
India | 58 | 14 | 22 | 22 |
Nepal | 23 | 12 | 3 | 8 |
China | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
Total | 84 | 26 | 25 | 33 |
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© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Jacobs, P.; Carbutt, C.; Beever, E.A.; Foggin, J.M.; Martin, M.; Orchard, S.; Sayre, R. A Decision-Support Tool to Augment Global Mountain Protection and Conservation, including a Case Study from Western Himalaya. Land 2023, 12, 1323. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071323
Jacobs P, Carbutt C, Beever EA, Foggin JM, Martin M, Orchard S, Sayre R. A Decision-Support Tool to Augment Global Mountain Protection and Conservation, including a Case Study from Western Himalaya. Land. 2023; 12(7):1323. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071323
Chicago/Turabian StyleJacobs, Peter, Clinton Carbutt, Erik A. Beever, J. Marc Foggin, Madeline Martin, Shane Orchard, and Roger Sayre. 2023. "A Decision-Support Tool to Augment Global Mountain Protection and Conservation, including a Case Study from Western Himalaya" Land 12, no. 7: 1323. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071323