Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks: Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance, Resilience and Sustainability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
“the degree to which the system minimises level of service failure magnitude and duration over its design life when subject to exceptional conditions”.
“the degree to which the system maintains levels of service in the long-term whilst maximising social, economic and environmental goals”.
2. Methodology
2.1. Social Network Construction and Analysis
2.2. Analytical Framework
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Rainwater Harvesting and Social Network Interactions
- RWH infrastructure innovator (green circle)—infrastructure providers who have developed a novel RWH product, process or service;
- Research organisation (blue diamond)—universities, institutions or project collaborations that are actively engaged in RWH research and knowledge creation;
- Network (light blue square)—membership-based organisations relating to RWH that are comprised of other actors, but coordinated by a small management team;
- Water/consultancy service provider (light blue oval)—large organisations directly or indirectly innovating or implementing in relation to RWH products and services;
- Decision/policy maker (green triangle)—central government support for RWH.
3.2. Implications of Rainwater Harvesting Network Interactions for Niche Management, Resilience and Sustainability
3.2.1. Rainwater Harvesting and Niche Management
- If a network primarily comprises traditional organisations practicing first order learning, an innovation will either perish or remain in the niche;
- If the network primarily comprises traditional organisations practicing second order learning, an innovation will remain in the niche or become an add-on technology to the existing regime;
- If the network primarily comprises traditional outside organisations and users only practicing first order learning, an innovation is likely to remain an add-on technology to the existing regime or a market niche;
- If the network primarily comprises traditional outside organisations and users practicing second order learning, an innovation will become an add-on technology to the existing regime or contribute to system change and become an element in a new regime.
3.2.2. Rainwater Harvesting, Resilience and Sustainability
- Diverse innovation—technical, social and service innovations with a variety of business models;
- Responsivity—to regime-level sustainability aims;
- No protection—no protected spaces and the imposition of threats (drivers) to foster resilience;
- Unconverged expectations—a functional network that does not necessarily have converged expectations;
- Primary influencers—intermediaries who are able to persuasively influence and destabilise the existing regime;
- Polycentric or adaptive governance—where organisations influence internal infrastructure trajectories (though not necessarily with equal weighting) and are inclusive of end-users;
- Multiple learning-types—fluidity, dynamism and reflexivity in learning type combinations across the actor network.
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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SNA No. | Abbreviation | Full Name | Description |
---|---|---|---|
1 | CWS | Centre for Water Systems | World-leading research and teaching centre at the University of Exeter, RWH has been a research stream since the 2000s |
2 | UKRMA | UK Rainwater Management Assoc. | Primarily a trade association with non-trade members, self-tasked lobbying group and knowledge network |
3 | WPT | Water Powered Technologies | Cornish SME pioneering the application of RAM pumps in a variety of applications including RWH (‘Hydromentum’) |
4 | RainShare | RainShare | The lead author’s social enterprise, which aims to connect people with too much runoff with those who need more via RWH |
5 | 3PTechnik | 3PTechnik | Self-badged ‘rainwater people’, operating for around 30 years, supplies components to the sector, constantly looking for the next innovation |
6 | FR | FlushRain | Sole trader responsible for developing a novel retrofitable downpipe-mounted low-volume/low-energy RWH system |
7 | AA_KK | Aqua Analytics and Kloud Keeper | SME designed the Kloud Keeper novel RWH system product. Tied to CWs via company director being RWH EngD candidate |
8 | StormS | Stormsaver | Established in 2003 and ‘UK market leader in the design and manufacture of RWH systems’, internal innovator and founder member of UKRMA. Responded to regulator pressure by launching a new product |
9 | Atlas | Atlas | SME selling and installing a novel retrofitable roof-mounted RWH system |
10 | RainSafe | RainSafe | Irish SME developing and testing a novel treatment device for RWH systems |
11 | 7T | Severn Trent Water | WSP at forefront of AWSS research/practice, setting up an national ‘urban demonstrator’ that will include RWH |
12 | UR | UrbanRain | European research consortium examining stormwater management across EU countries |
13 | FreeR | FreeRain | Founder member of the UKRMA, focused less on internal innovation, but always looking for the next external innovation |
14 | SWW | South West Water | WSP with customers and the environment as its priority, currently trialling RWH as part of its DownStream Thinking project |
15 | RHS | RainHarvesting Systems | Self-badged as the UK’s ‘original RWH company’ (since 1997), a provider of RWH system components and founder member of the UKRMA, more inclined to external innovation |
16 | Aquality | Aquality | Well-established RWH supplier and installer, used to internally innovating in response to the market. Launched a low-energy RWH system in response to regulatory pressures |
17 | GrafUK | GrafUK | Well-established RWH supplier and installer, more of an external innovator |
18 | AquaCo | AquaCo | Designer and installer of RWH systems, also specialises in greywater systems, not particularly active innovator |
19 | HydroINT | HydroInternational | Well-established RWH supplier and installer, used to internally innovating in response to the market, at the forefront of the drainage sector |
20 | ARUP | ARUP/PIPEX—Flowstow | Consultancy and design, manufacture and installation of a range of plastic products, which designed a novel RWH system, though one of its trial sites failed. Not widely utilised |
21 | SUSDRAIN (CIRIA) | Construction Industry Research and Information Association | A sustainable drainage-focused network run by an independent not-for-profit research, information and training organisation supporting research and advocacy of RWH |
22 | AnglianW | Anglian Water | WSP with experience in RWH systems, though in a negative sense as some properties in its area were misconnected, leading it to be a step ahead in monitoring RWH installations in its area |
23 | Defra | Dept. for environment, food and rural affairs | Ministerial department supported by 35 agencies and public bodies, including the water sector regulators (DWI, EA and Ofwat). Funds the WTL (No. 26) |
24 | RWH | Rainwater Harvesting | Well-established RWH supplier and installer, used to internally innovating in response to the market. Just launched a new dual-purpose RWH system (‘RainActiv’) |
25 | Watef | Water Efficiency Network | A small, friendly network of professionals with an interest in water efficiency, including RWH, has technical committees and runs an annual conference |
26 | WTL | Water Technology List | Defra-funded and managed by Ricardo-AEA, this list contains RWH products by a range of approved suppliers. Enables businesses to reclaim tax against any purchases of listed kit |
27 | ACO | ACO Water Management | A global company sourcing and delivering sustainable surface water management systems. Internal innovator of a range of RWH-focused products in response to regulatory and other drivers |
28 | NottTrent | Nottingham Trent University | Represented by an academic who has been active in research and teaching on RWH since the 1990s |
29 | CovUni | Coventry University | Represented by an academic who has been active in research and teaching on RWH since the 1990s |
30 | EA | Environment Agency | Environmental regulator for the water sector and responsible for producing guidance on RWH. Criticised for the methodology it used in 2010 to produce a report on the energy and carbon implications of RWH |
SNA No. | Name | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | Score | Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | CWS | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 29 | 1 |
2 | UKRMA | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 11 |
3 | WPT | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 24 |
4 | RainShare | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 2 |
5 | 3PTechnik | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 18 |
6 | FR | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 25 |
7 | AA_KK | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 3 |
8 | StormS | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 12 |
9 | Atlas | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 5 |
10 | RainSafe | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 26 |
11 | 7T | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 6 |
12 | UR | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 27 |
13 | FreeR | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 19 |
14 | SWW | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 7 |
15 | RHS | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 20 |
16 | Aquality | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 13 |
17 | GrafUK | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 14 |
18 | AquaCo | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 21 |
19 | HydroINT | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 15 |
20 | ARUP | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 28 |
21 | SUSDRAIN | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 16 |
22 | AnglianW | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 29 |
23 | Defra | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 22 |
24 | RWH | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 23 |
25 | Watef | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 17 |
26 | WTL | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 30 |
27 | ACO | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 8 |
28 | NottTrent | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 9 |
29 | CovUni | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 4 |
30 | EA | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 10 |
Niche Feature | Application to the RWH Niche |
---|---|
Niche Creation | |
Selection of candidate technology | A range of organisations have selected and supported the niche including CWS, UKRMA, water companies, consultants |
Selection of setting for local project/s | Many local projects over a 15 year period—settings often of convenience rather than to demonstrate how advantages outweigh disadvantages |
Define local project | Local goal—save water, attenuate runoff, provide a system/service to customer (business goal—sell products, embed the niche in the regime) |
Scale-up local projects | Conventional RWH systems have been scaled up by RWH Infrastructure Innovators. Limited accessible performance data limits visibility of this. |
Dismantle protection mechanisms to promote independence | No formal protection mechanisms exist to dismantle (with the exception of the limited Enhanced Capital Allowance) |
Availability of sheltered spaces for incubation | No spaces exist for RWH |
Possibility for continuous evaluation and incremental improvement | Direct and indirect drivers to continue incremental improvement e.g., low energy/carbon systems, dual-functionality, ensure that products are suitable for market, to which RWH Infrastructure Innovators have responded |
Exhibition of possibilities for capturing increasing returns or learning economies | RWH Infrastructure Innovators are opening doors for systems with higher rates of return than conventional RWH systems. Potential for learning economies, as RWH services are an under researched area, but due to the low price of potable mains water, returns for RWH are limited unless drivers (crises) are present |
Openness to development in different directions | Potential for 72 different and technically feasible RWH system configurations has recently been identified by CWS research. Non-RWH Infrastructure Innovators now beginning to realise there are options other than conventional systems, but require evidence that these perform as intended |
Favoured in certain applications so that advantages outweigh disadvantages | RWH is not a ‘one size fits all’ innovation and different types are required for different contexts. Work is ongoing with RWH Infrastructure Innovators to determine which types best fit which contexts |
Strategic Niche Management | |
Expectations (promises, actions) | Until the RWH niche can prove what it says (water efficiency, low energy, dual-function) there is no expectation of support. RWH Infrastructure Innovators are adjusting their visions to circumstances and promising and delivering low energy and dual-function systems, but require targets to work with |
Learning |
|
Networks (interactions) | Most RWH Infrastructure Innovators are linked to a network, research organisation or water service provider, but the quality of interaction varies and approaches to change agendas and visions of the regime can be pushy and confrontational. Consequently, RWH niche profile could be seen as being dominated by trade bodies/product sellers—RWH potentially needs better representation by an independent champion |
Conceptual Niche Management | |
Define a concept | New RWH Infrastructure Innovators are beginning to introduce service innovation/social enterprise concepts (e.g., AquaAnalytics and RainShare), but regime has yet to stimulate such ideas |
Explore its social embedding | New RWH Infrastructure Innovators and networks (Watef) are beginning to explore this area |
Start talks with ‘new’ actors | A range of actors are holding discussions on the utility of RWH for reliable, resilient and sustainable water systems |
Set up experiments | Very few examples other than those already given above |
Evaluation and learning | Yet to be actioned |
Social Niche Management | |
Values—niche-regime differences and interactions expressed | Niche needs to focus resources on better expressing how it meets the regime’s needs and regime needs to provide targets/criteria to meet |
Existence in the social economy | Limited RWH Infrastructure Innovator action in the social economy, with most focusing on sales with peripheral or coincidental social goals |
Pluralistic resource base | Some RWH innovators (WPT, Flushrain) are creative in obtaining external funding where possible due to a lack of dedicated subsidies/external funds, thus the niche is free to identify schemes of relevance |
Communities of Interest (CoI) or Location (CoL) | RWH CoI sit within CoL. CoI orient around RWH systems themselves, CoL orient around using RWH to achieve a local goal |
Conventional and alternative innovations are permitted to combine | Drive towards ‘urban demonstrator’ type projects where numerous interventions are implemented in physically or virtually proximal locations and any number of technical, service or social schemes are permissible for use in combination if relevant buy-in can be achieved with other stakeholders |
Organisation Type | Number of Organisations | Learner Type | Number of Organisations |
---|---|---|---|
Traditional | 11 | First order | 3 |
Non-traditional | 8 | Second order | 10 |
User | 5 | Both | 17 |
Outsider | 12 |
Concept | Definition | Evidence | Feature |
---|---|---|---|
Safe | Ability to meet public health (or equivalent) concerns of the existing regime | Public acceptance for using non-potable water for end uses such as flushing toilets is growing | Safe |
Sustainable | The degree to which the system maintains levels of service in the long-term whilst maximising social, economic and environmental goals | Maintaining sales and market share by responding to regime aims with product and service configurations that reduce energy use/carbon emissions/potable water use, have a competitive cost-benefit and are socially acceptable | Sustainable |
Resilience | The degree to which the system minimises level of service failure magnitude and duration over its design life when subject to exceptional conditions (extremes) | In response to the lack of dedicated protection mechanisms and imposition of threats (see row below), the RWH niche innovates quickly to maintain its ability to respond to emerging markets. Frequency is represented by the number of regime events to which the niche must respond, magnitude is whether the innovation response needs to be incremental or radical and duration is the time to release of new product/service configurations after regime events are imposed | Resilient |
Threat | Any internal or external actual and/or likely event with the potential to reduce the degree to which the system delivers a defined level of service | Threats the RWH niche has experienced include regime pressures (policy aims), which temporarily reduced its ability to demonstrate advantages over centralised infrastructure | No protected spaces; Regime aims (low carbon (environmental), dual function/cost-benefit (economic), retrofittable (social)) |
Impact | The degree of non-compliance with the defined level of service (results from a threat) | The proportion of product/services that do not meet regime aims or market needs | Unconverged expectations |
Consequence | Any outcomes and effects of the impacts (i.e., non-compliance with a level of service) on each pillar of sustainability | Inability to respond to sustainability-related regime aims | Unconverged expectations |
Intervention: mitigate, adapt, cope, learn | Reduce the threat; increase reliability and resilience; reduce the frequency, magnitude or duration of impact; embed experience in new knowledge and best practice | Use of intermediaries to understand the policy aims/influence the regime; Innovate products, services and business models to fit regime aims (but in this case they do not prove they perform); Ensure innovations meet regime aims; Learning should be used to demonstrate attainment of regime-imposed aims and better represent end-users | Intermediaries influencing the regime; Fluidity, dynamism and reflexivity in learning type combinations |
Recover | Regain the ability to deliver and comply with a defined level of service | A range of RWH innovators meet the needs of the regime and markets | Multiple actors influence internal niche process and trajectories to meet regime aims |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Ward, S.; Butler, D. Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks: Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance, Resilience and Sustainability. Water 2016, 8, 526. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110526
Ward S, Butler D. Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks: Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance, Resilience and Sustainability. Water. 2016; 8(11):526. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110526
Chicago/Turabian StyleWard, Sarah, and David Butler. 2016. "Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks: Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance, Resilience and Sustainability" Water 8, no. 11: 526. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110526
APA StyleWard, S., & Butler, D. (2016). Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks: Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance, Resilience and Sustainability. Water, 8(11), 526. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110526