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Review

Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment

by
Jan Vymazal
Department of Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Náměstí Smiřických 1, 281 63 Kostelec nad Černými lesy, Czech Republic
Water 2010, 2(3), 530-549; https://doi.org/10.3390/w2030530
Submission received: 2 July 2010 / Revised: 12 August 2010 / Accepted: 20 August 2010 / Published: 27 August 2010
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Pollution Management by Constructed Wetlands and On Site Filter Technologies)
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Abstract

:
The first experiments using wetland macrophytes for wastewater treatment were carried out in Germany in the early 1950s. Since then, the constructed wetlands have evolved into a reliable wastewater treatment technology for various types of wastewater. The classification of constructed wetlands is based on: the vegetation type (emergent, submerged, floating leaved, free-floating); hydrology (free water surface and subsurface flow); and subsurface flow wetlands can be further classified according to the flow direction (vertical or horizontal). In order to achieve better treatment performance, namely for nitrogen, various types of constructed wetlands could be combined into hybrid systems.

1. Introduction

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are engineered systems that have been designed and constructed to utilize the natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soils, and the associated microbial assemblages to assist in treating wastewaters. They are designed to take advantage of many of the same processes that occur in natural wetlands, but do so within a more controlled environment. CWs for wastewater treatment may be classified according to the life form of the dominating macrophyte, into systems with free-floating, floating leaved, rooted emergent and submerged macrophytes [1]. Further division could be made according to the wetland hydrology (free water surface and subsurface systems) and subsurface flow CWs could be classified according to the flow direction (horizontal and vertical) [2]. A simple scheme for various types of constructed wetlands is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. The major characteristics of various types of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. H = horizontal, V = vertical.
Figure 1. The major characteristics of various types of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment. H = horizontal, V = vertical.
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The first experiments aimed at the possibility of wastewater treatment by wetland plants were undertaken by Käthe Seidel in Germany in the early 1950s at the Max Planck Institute in Plön [3]. Seidel then carried out numerous experiments aimed at the use of wetland plants for treatment of various types of wastewater, including phenol wastewaters [4], dairy wastewaters [5] or livestock wastewater [6]. Most of her experiments were carried out in constructed wetlands with either horizontal (HF CWs) or vertical (VF CWs) subsurface flow, but the first fully constructed wetland was built with free water surface (FWS) in the Netherlands in 1967 [7]. However, FWS CWs did not spread substantially in Europe where subsurface flow constructed wetlands prevailed in the 1980s and 1990s [2].
In North America, FWS CWs started with the ecological engineering of natural wetlands for wastewater treatment at the end of the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s [8,9,10]. This treatment technology was adopted in North America not only for municipal wastewaters but all kinds of wastewaters [11]. Subsurface flow technology spread more slowly in North America but, at present, thousands of CWs of this type are in operation [11].
Various types of constructed wetlands may be combined in order to achieve higher treatment effect, especially for nitrogen. Hybrid systems comprise most frequently VF and HF systems arranged in a staged manner but, in general, all types of constructed wetlands could be combined in order to achieve more complex treatment efficiency [12].

2. Main Characteristics of Various Types of Constructed Wetlands

Various types of constructed wetlands differ in their main design characteristics as well as in the processes which are responsible for pollution removal. For the purpose of this paper, only FWS CWs with emergent macrophytes are considered.

2.1. Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands

A typical FWS CW with emergent macrophytes is a shallow sealed basin or sequence of basins, containing 20–30 cm of rooting soil, with a water depth of 20–40 cm. Dense emergent vegetation covers a significant fraction of the surface, usually more than 50% (Figure 2). Besides planted macrophytes, naturally occurring species may be present [13]. Plants are usually not harvested and the litter provides organic carbon necessary for denitrification which may proceed in anaerobic pockets within the litter layer.
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Figure 2. A free water surface constructed wetland (FWS CW) for stormwater runoff in Woodcroft Estate near Sydney, NWS, Australia. Photograph taken by the author.
Figure 2. A free water surface constructed wetland (FWS CW) for stormwater runoff in Woodcroft Estate near Sydney, NWS, Australia. Photograph taken by the author.
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FWS CWs are efficient in removal of organics through microbial degradation and settling of colloidal particles. Suspended solids are effectively removed via settling and filtration through the dense vegetation. Nitrogen is removed primarily through nitrification (in water column) and subsequent denitrification (in the litter layer), and ammonia volatilization under higher pH values caused by algal photosynthesis. Phosphorus retention is usually low because of limited contact of water with soil particles which adsorb and/or precipitate phosphorus. Plant uptake represents only temporal storage because the nutrients are released to water after the plant decay [2,11]. Constructed wetlands with FWS are frequently used in North America [11] (Figure 3) and Australia [14] (Figure 4). In Europe, this technology has recently gained more attention, especially in Sweden and Denmark where these systems are used to eliminate nitrogen from diffuse pollution [15].
Besides municipal wastewater, FWS CWs with emergent vegetation have been used to treat various types of wastewaters (Table 1).
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Figure 3. A FWS CW for treatment of alkaline mine drainage waters in Monastery Run, Pennsylvania, U.S. Photograph taken by the author.
Figure 3. A FWS CW for treatment of alkaline mine drainage waters in Monastery Run, Pennsylvania, U.S. Photograph taken by the author.
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Figure 4. A FWS CW for tertiary treatment of municipal wastewater in McGrath Hill, Hawkesbury, near Sydney, NSW, Australia. Photograph taken by the author.
Figure 4. A FWS CW for tertiary treatment of municipal wastewater in McGrath Hill, Hawkesbury, near Sydney, NSW, Australia. Photograph taken by the author.
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Table
Table 1. Examples of the use of FWS CWs for various types of wastewater.
Table 1. Examples of the use of FWS CWs for various types of wastewater.
Type of wastewaterLocationRef.
Animal wastesU.S.[16,17,18]
Dairy pasture runoffNew Zealand[19]
Agricultural drainageU.S.[20]
Stormwater runoff-residentialAustralia[21]
Stormwater runoff-highwayUnited Kingdom[22]
Stormwater runoff-airportSweden[23]
Acid coal mine drainageU.S., Spain[24,25]
Metal ores mine drainageGermany, Ireland, Canada[26,27,28]
Refinery process watersU.S., Hungary[29,30]
Paper and pulp wastewatersU.S.[31]
Shrimp aquacultureU.S.[32]
Landfill leachateSweden, Norway, U.S.[33,3435]
Sugar factoryKenya[36]
Olive millGreece[37]
Woodwaste leachateCanada[38]
Metallurgic industryArgentina[39,40]
Sizing of FWS CWs is usually based either on volume or area. Volume-based methods use a hydraulic retention time to assess the pollutant removal while area-based methods assess pollutant reduction using the overall wetland area [41]. In Table 2, the basic sizing criteria for BOD5, TSS and TKN removal are given. Wallace and Knight [41] pointed out that FWS CWs are generally not effective for phosphorus removal and only inflow loading less than 0.1 g P/m2 d would provide low effluent concentrations.
Table
Table 2. Loading rates recommended for achieving target effluent concentration in FWS CWs.
Table 2. Loading rates recommended for achieving target effluent concentration in FWS CWs.
ParameterEffluent Loading rateRef.
BOD530 mg/L6 g/m2 d[41,42]
25 mg/L3 g /m2 d[41]
20 mg/L4.5 g /m2 d[42]
TSS30 mg/L7 g/m2 d[41]
30 mg/L5 g/m2 d[42]
25 mg/L3.5 g/m2 d[41]
20 mg/L3 g/m2 d[42]
TKN10 mg/L1.5 g /m2 d[41]

2.2. Constructed Wetlands with Horizontal Subsurface Flow

HF CWs consist of gravel or rock beds sealed by an impermeable layer and planted with wetland vegetation (Figure 5). The wastewater is fed at the inlet and flows through the porous medium under the surface of the bed in a more or less horizontal path until it reaches the outlet zone, where it is collected and discharged. In the filtration beds, pollution is removed by microbial degradation and chemical and physical processes in a network of aerobic, anoxic, anaerobic zones with aerobic zones being restricted to the areas adjacent to roots where oxygen leaks to the substrate [43,44].
This type of constructed wetland was developed in the 1950s in Germany by Käthe Seidel who designed the HF CWs using coarse materials as the rooting medium. In the 1960s, Reinhold Kickuth suggested soil media with high clay content and called the system the “Root Zone Method” [45]. In the early 1980s, the HF CWs technology was introduced to Denmark and by 1987 nearly 100 soil-based systems were put in operation [46]. Despite problems with surface flow soil-based systems exhibited high treatment effect for organics and suspended solids if reed bed area 3–5 m2 PE−1 (population equivalent) was used [46]. During the late 1980s, the HF CWs were also introduced to other countries, such as Austria and United Kingdom [2] and then in the 1990s, this system spread into most European countries and also to North America, Australia, Asia and Africa. In the late 1980s, soil material was replaced by coarse material and at present, washed gravel or rock with grain size of about 10–20 mm are commonly used [2].
Organic compounds are effectively degraded mainly by microbial degradation under anoxic/anaerobic conditions as the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the filtration beds is very limited [47]. Suspended solids are retained predominantly by filtration and sedimentation and the removal efficiency is usually very high [2]. The major removal mechanism for nitrogen in HF CWs is denitrification. Removal of ammonia is limited due to lack of oxygen in the filtration bed as a consequence of permanent waterlogged conditions [48]. Phosphorus is removed primarily by ligand exchange reactions, where phosphate displaces water or hydroxyls from the surface of iron and aluminum hydrous oxides. Unless special materials are used, removal of P is usually low in HF CWs [48].
The most important roles of plants in HF CWs are provision of substrate (roots and rhizomes) for the growth of attached bacteria, radial oxygen loss (oxygen diffusion from roots to the rhizosphere), nutrient uptake and insulation of the bed surface in cold and temperate regions [49].
For a long time, the HF CWs have been designed using either simple “rule of thumb” set at 5 m2 PE−1 or plug-flow first order models [11,43]. Recently, more complex dynamic, compartmental models [50,51] have been developed. However, in these models many parameters are difficult to measure and therefore many assumptions must be made. Hence, it is important to realize that more complex models do not necessarily bring more precise design parameters. However, no matter which design model is used, for municipal sewage, the area of HF CWs is usually about 5 m2 PE−1 [2]. To achieve the outflow BOD5 and TSS concentration of 30 mg/L, the U.S. EPA recommends the respective inflow loads of 6 g/m2 d and 20 g/m2 d.
HF CWs have always been used to treat domestic (Figure 6) and municipal (Figure 7) wastewaters around the world. However, at present, HF CWs are used to treat many other types of wastewaters including industrial and agricultural, landfill leachate and runoff waters (Table 3).
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Figure 5. Schematic layout of a constructed wetland with horizontal subsurface flow. 1 inflow distribution zone filled with large stones; 2 impermeable layer; 3 filtration material; 4 vegetation; 5 water level in the bed; 6 outflow collection zone; 7 drainage pipe; 8 outflow structure with water level adjustment [44]. With permission from Backhuys Publishers.
Figure 5. Schematic layout of a constructed wetland with horizontal subsurface flow. 1 inflow distribution zone filled with large stones; 2 impermeable layer; 3 filtration material; 4 vegetation; 5 water level in the bed; 6 outflow collection zone; 7 drainage pipe; 8 outflow structure with water level adjustment [44]. With permission from Backhuys Publishers.
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Figure 6. On-site horizontal flow (HF) CWs at Struhaře, Czech Republic, planted with Phalaris arundinacea and Iris pseudacorus. Photograph taken by the author.
Figure 6. On-site horizontal flow (HF) CWs at Struhaře, Czech Republic, planted with Phalaris arundinacea and Iris pseudacorus. Photograph taken by the author.
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Figure 7. HF CWs at Staverton, United Kingdom. Tertiary treatment for 603 PE. Photograph taken by the author.
Figure 7. HF CWs at Staverton, United Kingdom. Tertiary treatment for 603 PE. Photograph taken by the author.
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Table
Table 3. Examples of the use of HF CWs for various types of wastewater.
Table 3. Examples of the use of HF CWs for various types of wastewater.
Type of wastewaterLocationRef.
PetrochemicalU.S., China[52,53]
Chemical industryUnited Kingdom[54]
Paper and pulp wastewatersU.S.[55]
AbattoirMexico, Ecuador[56,57]
Textile industryAustralia[58]
Tannery industryPortugal[59]
Food industrySlovenia, Italy[60,61]
Distillery and wineryIndia, Italy[62,63]
Pig farmAustralia, Lithuania[64,65]
Fish farmCanada, Germany[66,67]
DairyU.S., Germany, Uruguay[68,69,70]
Highway runoffUnited Kingdom [71]
Airport runoffU.S.[72]
Nursery runoffAustralia[73]
Landfill leachatePoland[74]

2.3. Constructed Wetlands with Vertical Subsurface Flow

Vertical flow constructed wetlands (VF CWs) (Figure 8) were originally introduced by Seidel to oxygenate anaerobic septic tank effluents [75]. However, the VF CWs did not spread as quickly as HF CWs probably because of the higher operation and maintenance requirements due to the necessity to pump the wastewater intermittently on the wetland surface (Figure 9). The water is fed in large batches and then the water percolates down through the sand medium. The new batch is fed only after all the water percolates and the bed is free of water. This enables diffusion of oxygen from the air into the bed. As a result, VF CWs are far more aerobic than HF CWs and provide suitable conditions for nitrification. On the other hand, VF CWs do not provide any denitrification. VF CWs are also very effective in removing organics and suspended solids. Removal of phosphorus is low unless media with high sorption capacity are used [2]. As compared to HF CWs, vertical flow systems require less land, usually 1–3 m2 PE−1 [76,77,78,79]. The early VF CWs were composed of several stages with beds in the first stage fed in rotation. At present, VF CWs are usually built with one bed and the system is called “compact” VF CWs [77].
VF CWs are very often used to treat domestic and municipal wastewater and especially when discharge limits are set for ammonia-nitrogen. However, in the literature, numerous reports have been published on the use of VF CWS for various types of wastewater such as refinery effluent [80], composting leachate [81], airport runoff [82], dairy [83] or cheese production effluent [84].
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Figure 8. Layout of a vertical flow constructed wetland system for a single household. Raw sewage is pre-treated in a sedimentation tank. Settled sewage is pulse-loaded onto the surface of the bed by a level-controlled pump. Treated effluent is collected in a system of drainage pipes, and half of the effluent is recirculated back to the pumping well (or to the sedimentation tank) [76]. With permission from Elsevier.
Figure 8. Layout of a vertical flow constructed wetland system for a single household. Raw sewage is pre-treated in a sedimentation tank. Settled sewage is pulse-loaded onto the surface of the bed by a level-controlled pump. Treated effluent is collected in a system of drainage pipes, and half of the effluent is recirculated back to the pumping well (or to the sedimentation tank) [76]. With permission from Elsevier.
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In upflow vertical CWs, the wastewater is fed on the bottom of the wetland. The water percolates upward and then it is collected either near the surface or on the surface of the wetland bed. These systems are commonly used, for example, in Brazil [85]. Recently, the “fill and drain” or “tidal” CWs have been developed. In tidal flow systems the wastewater percolates upwards until the surface is flooded. When the surface is completely flooded, the feeding is stopped, the wastewater is then held in the bed and, at a set time later, the wastewater is drained downwards. After the water has drained from the filtration bed, the treatment cycle is complete and air can diffuse into the voids in the filtration material [86].
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Figure 9. Wastewater distribution at vertical flow (VF) CWs at Bexhill, NSW, Australia. Photograph taken by the author.
Figure 9. Wastewater distribution at vertical flow (VF) CWs at Bexhill, NSW, Australia. Photograph taken by the author.
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2.4. Hybrid Constructed Wetlands

Constructed wetlands could be combined in order to achieve a higher treatment effect by using advantages of individual systems. Most hybrid constructed wetlands combine VF and HF stages [87]. The VF-HF system was originally designed by Seidel as early as in the late 1950s and the early 1960s [71] but the use of hybrid systems was then very limited. In the 1980s VF-HF hybrid constructed wetlands were built in France [88] and United Kingdom [89]. At present, hybrid constructed wetlands are in operation in many countries around the world and they are used especially when removal of ammonia-N and total-N is required [2].
Besides sewage, hybrid constructed wetlands have been used to treat a variety of other wastewaters, for example, landfill leachate [90,91], compost leaching [92], slaughterhouse [93], shrimp and fish aquaculture [94,95] or winery [63].

3. Treatment Performance

3.1. Organics and Suspended Solids

Removal of organics is high in all types of constructed wetlands (Table 4). While in FWS and VF constructed wetlands, the microbial degradation processes are mostly aerobic, in HF constructed wetlands, anoxic and anaerobic processes prevail. The treatment efficiency is similar for FWS and HF CWs, while for VF CWs the percentage efficiency is higher due to higher inflow concentrations. VF constructed wetlands are nearly always used for primary or secondary treatment while FWS are often used for tertiary treatment [96] and HF CWs are often used for treatment of wastewater diluted with stormwater runoff [2]. However, the outflow concentrations for secondary treatment systems are comparable for all types of constructed wetlands (Table 4). Removal of suspended solids is very high in all types of constructed wetlands (Table 4). The results presented in Table 4 also indicate that hydraulic retention time is usually lower in FWS CWs as compared to sub-surface flow CWs.
Table
Table 4. Treatment efficiency (Eff, in %) of various types of constructed wetlands (CWs) for organics and suspended solids. Inflow (In) and outflow (Out) concentrations in mg/L. HLR = hydraulic loading rate (cm/d). N = number of CWs. * updated.
Table 4. Treatment efficiency (Eff, in %) of various types of constructed wetlands (CWs) for organics and suspended solids. Inflow (In) and outflow (Out) concentrations in mg/L. HLR = hydraulic loading rate (cm/d). N = number of CWs. * updated.
Type of CWRefBOD5TSS
InOutEffHLRNInOutEffHLRN
FWS[2]*16142744.15018543774.852
[90]34.69.8723.35157.818.3683.152
HF[2]170427511.8438141357515.4367
VF[2]*27428908.212516318899.798
Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands is presented in Table 5. Phosphorus retention is low in all types of constructed wetlands and CWs are seldom built with phosphorus being the primary target of the treatment. Most studies on phosphorus cycling in wetlands have shown that soil/peat accumulation is the major long-term phosphorus sink [97]. Among the various types of constructed wetlands, soil accretion occurs only in FWS CWs as the vegetation is not harvested and wastewater gets in contact with top soil layer. However, the magnitude of phosphorus retention is very low as compared to loads commonly occurring in wastewaters [2,11,48]. In sub-surface flow CWs, the major removal mechanisms are adsorption and precipitation. However, materials which are commonly used for sub-surface flow CWs, i.e., washed gravel or crushed rock, provide very low capacity for sorption and precipitation [2,48]. Recently, manufactured filtration materials such as LECA (light weight clay aggregates) or by- and waste-products such as furnace steel slags, have been tested in constructed wetlands [98,99]. The removal of phosphorus is very high with these substrates, but it is important to realize that sorption and precipitation are saturable processes and the sorption decreases over time.
Table
Table 5. Treatment efficiency (Eff, in %) of various types of constructed wetlands (CWs) for nitrogen and phosphorus. Inflow (In) and outflow (Out) concentrations in mg/L. HLR = hydraulic loading rate (cm/d). N = number of CWs. *updated.
Table 5. Treatment efficiency (Eff, in %) of various types of constructed wetlands (CWs) for nitrogen and phosphorus. Inflow (In) and outflow (Out) concentrations in mg/L. HLR = hydraulic loading rate (cm/d). N = number of CWs. *updated.
Type of CWRef.TPTNNH4-N
InOutEffHLRNInOutEffHLRNInOutEffHLRN
FWS[2]*14.79.7345.45242.623.5454.9293016485.440
[42]4.01.849 20711.76.247 192
[11]7.95.13512.32828449.5418.91167546397.3118
[90]3.61.8503.55210.94.6583.2365.82.7533.159
HF[2]9.64.85011.427263364310.620836223914.1305
[11] 5436337.61234028307.0213
VF[2]*10.34.5568.21187341439.1995614.9738.4129
Removal of total nitrogen (Table 5) is also usually low due to low nitrification in water-saturated HF constructed wetlands and low or zero denitrification in FWS and VF CWs, respectively [2,11,48]. In FWS CWs nitrogen is removed via nitrification in aerobic water column and subsequent denitrificaton in anoxic litter layer on the bed surface. Volatilization may be a significant route for nitrogen removal in constructed wetlands with open water surface where algal assemblages can create high pH values during the day through their photosynthetic activity [46]. In vertical-flow constructed wetlands, very high nitrification proceeds but, because of entirely aerobic conditions in the vertical bed, no denitrification takes place [76]. In order to achieve effective removal of total nitrogen VF CWs could be combined with HF CWs which, in contrast, do not nitrify but provide suitable conditions for reduction of nitrate formed during nitrification in VF beds [2,11,48,76]. Plant uptake in all types of constructed wetlands is effective only when plants are harvested, but the amount sequestered in the aboveground biomass is usually very low and does not exceed 10% of the inflow nutrient load [2].
More details on treatment performance of constructed wetlands for various types of wastewater could be found elsewhere [2,11,96].

4. Costs

The basic investment costs for constructed wetlands include land, site investigation, system design, earthwork, liners, filtration (HF and VF CWs) or rooting (FWS CWs) media, vegetation, hydraulic control structures and miscellaneous costs (e.g., fencing, access roads) [41]. However, the proportions of individual costs vary widely in different parts of the world. Also, larger systems demonstrate greater economies for scale [41]. For example, Vymazal and Kröpfelová [2] summarized available data from HF CWs in U.S., Czech Republic, Portugal, Spain and Portugal and found out that excavation costs varied between 7 and 27.4% of the total capital cost, while gravel varied between 27 and 53%, liner (13–33%), plants (2–12%), plumbing (6–12%), control structures (3.1–5.7%) and miscellaneous (1.8–12%). The total investment costs vary even more, and the cost could be as low as 29 USD per m2 in India [100] or 33 USD per m2 in Costa Rica [101], or as high as 257 EUR per m2 in Belgium [102]. In general, the capital costs for subsurface flow constructed wetlands are about the same as for conventional treatment systems. The capital costs for FWS CWs are usually less than for subsurface flow systems mainly because the cost for media is limited to rooting soil on the bottom of the beds.
Constructed wetlands have very low operation and maintenance costs, including pumping energy (if necessary), compliance monitoring, maintenance of access roads and berms, pretreatment maintenance (including regular cleaning of screens and emptying septic or Imhoff tank and grit chambers), vegetation harvesting (if applicable) and equipment replacement and repairs. The basic costs are much lower than those for competing concrete and steel technologies, by a factor of 2–10 [2,11]. In addition, because wetlands have a higher rate of biological activity than most ecosystems, they can transform many of the common pollutants that occur in conventional wastewaters into harmless byproducts or essential nutrients that can be used for additional biological productivity. These transformations are accomplished by virtue of the wetland´s land area, with the inherent natural environmental energies of sun, wind, soil, plants, and animals. Because of the natural environmental energies at work in constructed treatment wetlands, minimal fossil fuel energy and chemicals are typically needed to meet treatment objectives [11].

5. Conclusions

Constructed treatment wetlands have evolved during the last five decades into a reliable treatment technology which can be applied to all types of wastewater including sewage, industrial and agricultural wastewaters, landfill leachate and stormwater runoff. Pollution is removed through the processes which are common in natural wetlands but, in constructed wetlands, these processes proceed under more controlled conditions. All types of constructed wetlands are very effective in removing organics and suspended solids, whereas removal of nitrogen is lower but could be enhanced by using a combination of various types of CWs. Removal of phosphorus is usually low unless special media with high sorption capacity are used. Constructed wetlands require very low or zero energy input and, therefore, the operation and maintenance costs are much lower compared to conventional treatment systems. In addition to treatment, constructed wetlands are often designed as dual- or multipurpose ecosystems which may provide other ecosystems services such as flood control, carbon sequestration or wildlife habitat.

Acknowledgements

The study was supported by grants No. 206/06/0058 “Monitoring of Heavy Metals and Selected Risk Elements during Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands” from the Czech Science Foundation, No. 2B06023 “Development of Mass and Energy Flows Evaluation in Selected Ecosystems” from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic and No. QH81170 Complex Evaluation of the Effect of Area Protection on Important Water Management Localities from the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic.

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