Impact of Dietary Habit, Iodine Supplementation and Smoking Habit on Urinary Iodine Concentration During Pregnancy in a Catalonia Population
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Clinical Trial Registration
2.6. Ethical aspects
3. Results
3.1. Association with UIC ≥150 μg/L
3.2. Multivariate Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Availability of Data and Materials
References
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T1 (n = 945) | T2 (n = 752) | T3 (n = 705) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 30.6 (4.6) | 30.4 (4.5) | 30.4 (4.5) | 0.726 |
Urban setting | 363 (73.7%) | 551 (73.3%) | 523 (74.2%) | 0.924 |
Educational level | ||||
Illiterate | 5 (0.5%) | 5 (0.7%) | 3 (0.4%) | 0.999 |
Primary school education not completed | 28 (3%) | 18 (2.5%) | 19 (2.8%) | |
Primary school | 232 (24.6%) | 180 (24.8%) | 165 (24.6%) | |
High school | 393 (41.6%) | 297 (40.9%) | 274 (40.9%) | |
University degree | 287 (30.4%) | 226 (31.1%) | 209 (31.2%) | |
Place of origin | ||||
Native of Spain | 784 (83%) | 600 (82.6%) | 560 (83.6%) | 0.999 |
South American | 71 (7.5%) | 53 (7.3%) | 46 (6.9%) | |
African | 52 (5.5%) | 43 (5.9%) | 39 (5.8%) | |
Other | 38 (4%) | 30 (4.1%) | 25 (3.7%) | |
Milk | ||||
0 glasses | 178 (18.8%) | 103 (13.7%) | 82 (11.6%) | <0.001 |
1–2 glasses | 633 (67%) | 525 (69.8%) | 482 (68.4%) | |
>2 glasses | 134 (14.2%) | 124 (16.5%) | 141 (20%) | |
Yogurt | ||||
0 units | 126 (13.3%) | 80 (10.6%) | 70 (9.9%) | 0.070 |
1–2 units | 192 (20.3%) | 149 (19.8%) | 124 (17.6%) | |
>2 units | 627 (66.3%) | 523 (69.5%) | 511 (72.5%) | |
Cheese | ||||
0 portions | 131 (13.9%) | 77 (10.2%) | 80 (11.3%) | 0.184 |
1–2 portions | 214 (22.6%) | 173 (23%) | 153 (21.7%) | |
>2 portions | 600 (63.5%) | 502 (66.8%) | 472 (67%) | |
Cooked vegetables | ||||
0 servings | 48 (5.1%) | 24 (3.2%) | 22 (3.1%) | 0.030 |
1–2 servings | 289 (30.6%) | 212 (28.2%) | 185 (26.2%) | |
>2 servings | 608 (64.3%) | 516 (68.6%) | 498 (70.6%) | |
Fresh vegetables | ||||
0 servings | 51 (5.4%) | 25 (3.3%) | 21 (3%) | <0.001 |
1–2 servings | 194 (20.5%) | 109 (14.5%) | 115 (16.3%) | |
>2 servings | 700 (74.1%) | 618 (82.2%) | 569 (80.7%) | |
Fish | ||||
0 servings | 58 (6.1%) | 29 (3.9%) | 25 (3.5%) | <0.001 |
1–2 servings | 535 (56.6%) | 390 (51.9%) | 335 (47.5%) | |
>2 servings | 352 (37.2%) | 333 (44.3%) | 345 (48.9%) | |
Canned fish | ||||
0 servings | 142 (15%) | 77 (10.2%) | 72 (10.2%) | <0.001 |
1–2 servings | 495 (52.4%) | 351 (46.7%) | 308 (43.7%) | |
>2 servings | 308 (32.6%) | 324 (43.1%) | 325 (46.1%) | |
Meat | ||||
0 servings | 36 (3.8%) | 11 (1.5%) | 12 (1.7%) | 0.016 |
1–2 servings | 123 (13%) | 97 (12.9%) | 89 (12.6%) | |
>2 servings | 786 (83.2%) | 644 (85.6%) | 604 (85.7%) | |
Cold cooked meat | ||||
0 servings | 133 (14.1%) | 127 (16.9%) | 115 (16.3%) | 0.170 |
1–2 servings | 261 (27.6%) | 212 (28.2%) | 218 (30.9%) | |
>2 servings | 551 (58.3%) | 413 (54.9%) | 372 (52.8%) | |
Eggs | ||||
0 servings | 52 (5.5%) | 18 (2.4%) | 22 (3.1%) | <0.001 |
1–2 servings | 526 (55.7%) | 399 (53.1%) | 356 (50.5%) | |
>2 servings | 367 (38.8%) | 335 (44.5%) | 327 (46.4%) | |
Fruit | ||||
0 servings | 38 (4%) | 17 (2.3%) | 11 (1.6%) | <0.001 |
1–2 servings | 89 (9.4%) | 46 (6.1%) | 35 (5%) | |
>2 servings | 818 (86.6%) | 689 (91.6%) | 659 (93.5%) | |
Dried fruit | ||||
0 servings | 366 (38.7%) | 286 (38%) | 284 (40.3%) | 0.918 |
1–2 servings | 351 (37.1%) | 285 (37.9%) | 260 (36.9%) | |
>2 servings | 228 (24.1%) | 181 (24.1%) | 161 (22.8%) | |
Iodized salt | 337 (35.7%) | 622 (85.7%) | 598 (89.3%) | <0.001 |
Iodine supplementation | 442 (46.8%) | 645 (88.8%) | 587 (87.6%) | <0.001 |
Tobacco consumption | 0.042 | |||
Non smoker | 626 (66.2%) | 542 (67.8%) | 545 (68%) | |
Ex-smoker | 98 (10.4%) | 105 (13.1%) | 106 (13.2%) | |
Smoker | 221 (23.4%) | 153 (19.1%) | 150 (18.7%) | |
UIC, µg/L (*) | 172 (104–289) | 210 (130–319) | 202.5 (131–331) | <0.001 |
UIC ≥ 150 µg/L | 556 (57.3%) | 514 (68.5%) | 479 (68%) | <0.001 |
T1 | p | T2 | p | T3 | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 945 | n = 752 | n = 705 | ||||
Milk | 0.016 | 0.129 | 0.543 | |||
0 glasses | 85/178 (47.8%) | 63/103 (61.2%) | 51/81 (63%) | |||
1–2 glasses | 372/633 (58.8%) | 363/523 (69.4%) | 332/482 (68.9%) | |||
>2 glasses | 81/134 (60.4%) | 88/124 (71%) | 96/141 (68.1%) | |||
Yogurt | 0.372 | 0.468 | 0.416 | |||
0 units | 72/126 (57.1%) | 57/80 (71.3%) | 46/70 (65.7%) | |||
1–2 units | 99/192 (51.6%) | 104/149 (69.8%) | 81/124 (65.3%) | |||
>2 units | 367/627 (58.5%) | 353/521 (67.8%) | 352/510 (69%) | |||
Cheese | 0.104 | 0.689 | 0.903 | |||
0 portions | 69/131 (52.7%) | 51/77 (66.2%) | 53/80 (66.3%) | |||
1–2 portions | 115/214 (53.7%) | 118/172 (68.6%) | 108/153 (70.6%) | |||
>2 portions | 354/600 (59%) | 345/501 (68.9%) | 318/471 (67.5%) | |||
Cooked vegetables | 0.561 | 0.715 | 0.046 | |||
0 servings | 26/48 (54.2%) | 12/24 (50%) | 11/22 (50%) | |||
1–2 servings | 162/289 (56.1%) | 151/211 (71.6%) | 120/184 (65.2%) | |||
>2 servings | 350/608 (57.6%) | 351/515 (68.2%) | 348/498 (69.9%) | |||
Fresh vegetables | 0.024 | 0.630 | 0.140 | |||
0 servings | 21/51 (41.2%) | 15/25 (60%) | 9/21 (42.9%) | |||
1–2 servings | 107/194 (55.2%) | 76/109 (69.7%) | 80/115 (69.6%) | |||
>2 servings | 410/700 (58.6%) | 423/616 (68.7%) | 390/568 (68.7%) | |||
Fish | 0.277 | 0.927 | 0.413 | |||
0 servings | 31/58 (53.4%) | 15/28 (53.6%) | 16/25 (64%) | |||
1–2 servings | 299/535 (55.9%) | 275/390 (70.5%) | 235/334 (70.4%) | |||
>2 servings | 208/352 (59.1%) | 224/332 (67.5%) | 228/345 (66.1%) | |||
Canned fish | 0.184 | 0.515 | 0.578 | |||
0 servings | 72/142 (50.7%) | 50/77 (64.9%) | 50/72 (69.4%) | |||
1–2 servings | 286/495 (57.8%) | 240/350 (68.6%) | 203/308 (65.9%) | |||
>2 servings | 180/308 (58.4%) | 224/323 (69.3%) | 226/324 (69.8%) | |||
Meat | 0.590 | 0.147 | 0.678 | |||
0 servings | 18/36 (50%) | 6/11 (54.5%) | 8/12 (66.7%) | |||
1–2 servings | 71/123 (57.7%) | 77/97 (79.4%) | 63/89 (70.8%) | |||
>2 servings | 449/786 (57.1%) | 431/642 (67.1%) | 408/603 (67.7%) | |||
Cold cooked meat | 0.529 | 0.013 | 0.623 | |||
0 servings | 74/133 (55.6%) | 97/127 (76.4%) | 76/114 (66.7%) | |||
1–2 servings | 159/261 (60.9%) | 148/210 (70.5%) | 156/218 (71.6%) | |||
>2 servings | 305/551 (55.4%) | 269/413 (65.1%) | 247/372 (66.4%) | |||
Eggs | 0.383 | 0.799 | 0.718 | |||
0 servings | 32/52 (61.5%) | 11/18 (61.1%) | 14/22 (63.6%) | |||
1–2 servings | 287/526 (54.6%) | 273/397 (68.8%) | 241/355 (67.9%) | |||
>2 servings | 219/367 (59.7%) | 230/335 (68.7%) | 224/327 (68.5%) | |||
Fruit | 0.027 | 0.862 | 0.195 | |||
0 servings | 17/38 (44.7%) | 12/17 (70.6%) | 9/11 (81.8%) | |||
1–2 servings | 44/89 (49.4%) | 30/46 (65.2%) | 26/35 (74.3%) | |||
>2 servings | 477/818 (58.3%) | 472/687 (68.7%) | 444/658 (67.5%) | |||
Dried fruit | 0.639 | 0.078 | 0.653 | |||
0 servings | 199/366 (54.4%) | 198/284 (69.7%) | 189/284 (66.5%) | |||
1–2 servings | 213/351 (60.7%) | 206/285 (72.3%) | 189/259 (73%) | |||
>2 servings | 126/228 (55.3%) | 110/181 (60.8%) | 101/161 (62.7%) | |||
Iodized salt | 0.001 | 0.030 | 0.004 | |||
No | 321/608 (52.8%) | 65/109 (59.6%) | 42/78 (53.8%) | |||
Yes | 217/337 (64.4%) | 449/641 (70%) | 437/626 (69.8%) | |||
Iodine supplementation | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 | |||
No | 234/503 (46.5%) | 45/84 (53.6%) | 44/87 (50.6%) | |||
Yes | 304/442 (68.8%) | 469/666 (70.4%) | 435/617 (70.5%) | |||
Tobacco use | 0.178 | 0.247 | 0.908 | |||
Non-smoker | 374/633 (59.1%) | 349/520 (67.1%) | 331/485 (68.2%) | |||
Smoker | 54/98 (55.1%) | 54/75 (72%) | 53/75 (70.7%) | |||
Ex-smoker | 123/232 (53%) | 110/154 (71.4%) | 95/144 (66% |
UIC | β Coefficient | OR (95% CI) | p | 1/OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Milk | ||||
1–2 glasses | −0.464 | 0.63 (0.48–0.82) | 0.001 | 1.59 (2.08–1.22) |
>2 glasses | −0.531 | 0.59 (0.42–0.83) | 0.002 | 1.70 (2.40–1.21) |
Yogurt | ||||
1–2 units | 0.134 | 1.14 (0.80–1.63) | 0.461 | 0.87 (1.25–0.61) |
>2 units | −0.067 | 0.94 (0.69–1.27) | 0.670 | 1.07 (1.45–0.79) |
Cheese | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.164 | 0.85 (0.60–1.19) | 0.345 | 1.18 (1.65–0.84) |
>2 portions | −0.238 | 0.79 (0.58–1.07) | 0.122 | 1.27 (1.72–0.94) |
Cooked vegetables | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.510 | 0.60 (0.36–0.99) | 0.046 | 1.67 (2.75–1.01) |
>2 portions | −0.581 | 0.56 (0.34–0.91) | 0.019 | 1.79 (2.90–1.10) |
Fresh vegetables | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.674 | 0.51 (0.31–0.85) | 0.009 | 1.96 (3.26–1.18) |
>2 portions | −0.812 | 0.44 (0.28–0.71) | 0.001 | 2.25 (3.61–1.41) |
Fish | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.363 | 0.70 (0.44–1.09) | 0.113 | 1.44 (2.25–0.92) |
>2 portions | −0.358 | 0.70 (0.44–1.10) | 0.124 | 1.43 (2.26–0.91) |
Canned fish | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.193 | 0.82 (0.61–1.12) | 0.212 | 1.21 (1.64–0.90) |
>2 portions | −0.372 | 0.69 (0.50–0.94) | 0.021 | 1.45 (1.99–1.06) |
Meet | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.636 | 0.53 (0.27–1.02) | 0.057 | 1.89 (3.64–0.98) |
>2 portions | −0.413 | 0.66 (0.36–1.21) | 0.183 | 1.51 (2.78–0.82) |
Cold cooked meat | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.100 | 0.90 (0.66–1.23) | 0.525 | 1.11 (1.51–0.81) |
>2 portions | 0.188 | 1.21 (0.91–1.60) | 0.192 | 0.83 (1.10–0.62) |
Eggs | ||||
1–2 portions | 0 | 1 (0.61–1.65) | 1.000 | 1 (1.65–0.61) |
>2 portions | −0.156 | 0.86 (0.52–1.42) | 0.545 | 1.17 (1.94–0.71) |
Fruit | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.104 | 0.90 (0.47–1.74) | 0.757 | 1.11 (2.14–0.57) |
>2 portions | −0.348 | 0.71 (0.40–1.25) | 0.232 | 1.42 (2.51–0.80) |
Dried fruit | ||||
1–2 portions | −0.221 | 0.80 (0.64–1.00) | 0.050 | 1.25 (1.56–1.00) |
>2 portions | 0.147 | 1.16 (0.90–1.49) | 0.248 | 0.86 (1.11–0.67) |
Iodized salt | ||||
yes | −0.726 | 0.48 (0.40–0.59) | 0 | 2.07 (2.53–1.69) |
Iodine supplementation | ||||
yes | −1.035 | 0.36 (0.29–0.44) | 0 | 2.82 (3.48–2.28) |
Tobacco use | ||||
Ex-smoker | 0.012 | 1.01 (0.72–1.42) | 0.944 | 0.99 (1.38–0.71) |
Smoker | 0.170 | 1.19 (0.93–1.51) | 0.173 | 0.84 (1.08–0.66) |
A. Multilevel Mixed-Effects | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Coefficient | OR (95% CI) | p | 1/OR (95% CI) |
Iodine supplementation | −0.872 | 0.42 (0.34–0.52) | 0 | 2.39 (1.92–2.98) |
Iodized salt | −0.403 | 0.67 (0.54–0.83) | 0 | 1.50 (1.21–1.85) |
Milk | ||||
1–2 glasses | −0.383 | 0.68 (0.52–0.90) | 0.006 | 1.47 (1.12–1.93) |
>2 glasses | −0.453 | 0.64 (0.45–0.90) | 0.011 | 1.57 (1.11–2.23) |
Constant | 0.575 | |||
B. Multilevel with Imputation | ||||
Variables | Coefficient | OR (95% CI) | p | 1/OR (95% CI) |
Iodine supplementation | −0.845 | 0.43 (0.35–0.53) | 0 | 2.33 (1.89–2.87) |
Iodized salt | −0.383 | 0.68 (0.55–0.84) | 0 | 1.47 (1.19–1.81) |
Milk | ||||
1–2 glasses | −0.382 | 0.68 (0.53–0.88) | 0.003 | 1.46 (1.13–1.89) |
>2 glasses | −0.456 | 0.63 (0.45–0.89) | 0.008 | 1.58 (1.13–2.21) |
Constant | 0.567 |
Variable | Complete | Imputed | Total |
---|---|---|---|
Iodine | 2338 (82.5%) | 497 (17.5%) | 2835 |
Milk | 2341 (82.6%) | 494 (17.4%) | 2835 |
Fresh vegetables | 2341 (82.6%) | 494 (17.4%) | 2835 |
Cooked vegetables | 2341 (82.6%) | 494 (17.4%) | 2835 |
Canned fish | 2341 (82.6%) | 494 (17.4%) | 2835 |
Tobacco use | 2546 (89.8%) | 289 (10.2%) | 2835 |
Iodine supplementation | 2341 (82.6%) | 494 (17.4%) | 2835 |
Iodized salt | 2341 (82.6%) | 494 (17.4%) | 2835 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Torres, M.-T.; Vila, L.; Manresa, J.-M.; Casamitjana, R.; Prieto, G.; Toran, P.; Falguera, G.; Francés, L.; the IODEGEST Study Group. Impact of Dietary Habit, Iodine Supplementation and Smoking Habit on Urinary Iodine Concentration During Pregnancy in a Catalonia Population. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2656. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092656
Torres M-T, Vila L, Manresa J-M, Casamitjana R, Prieto G, Toran P, Falguera G, Francés L, the IODEGEST Study Group. Impact of Dietary Habit, Iodine Supplementation and Smoking Habit on Urinary Iodine Concentration During Pregnancy in a Catalonia Population. Nutrients. 2020; 12(9):2656. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092656
Chicago/Turabian StyleTorres, Maria-Teresa, Lluis Vila, Josep-María Manresa, Roser Casamitjana, Gemma Prieto, Pere Toran, Gemma Falguera, Lidia Francés, and the IODEGEST Study Group. 2020. "Impact of Dietary Habit, Iodine Supplementation and Smoking Habit on Urinary Iodine Concentration During Pregnancy in a Catalonia Population" Nutrients 12, no. 9: 2656. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092656