Human–Plant Encounters: How Do Visitors’ Therapeutic Landscape Experiences Evolve? A Case Study of Xixiang Rural Garden in Erlang Town, China

Abstract

In recent years, many locales featuring therapeutic landscapes have seen a rise in health tourism. Existing scholarship tends to either concentrate on specific types of landscape or analyze human emotional experiences separately, often overlooking how therapeutic landscape experiences arise from interactions among human and non-human actors. This study focuses on the relationship between tourists and non-human actors (plants such as rice and lotus leaves, etc.) through immersive interaction. This research is built on critical plant theory and draws on a case study of Xixiang Rural Garden, Erlang Town, China, to examine the co-evolution of therapeutic landscape experience and health tourism and its inherent dynamism. Utilizing qualitative methods, data were collected between October 2024 and September 2025 through participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, and policy document analysis, involving diverse stakeholders, including local government officials, project designers, villagers, and tourists. From a micro-level empirical perspective, the study examines the co-evolution of therapeutic landscape experiences and health tourism and its underlying dynamics. The results show that visitors’ therapeutic experiences deepen through a cyclical process of “therapeutic spatial practices–relational negotiations–experiential transformation.” Key mechanisms driving this process include plant agency, cross-cultural dialogue, and multisensory engagement, which collectively facilitate the transition from initial sensory perceptions to deeper ecological awareness and multispecies relations. Based on micro-level empirical analysis, this study offers concrete policy insights for local governments seeking to promote the sustainable development of therapeutic tourism. In response to practical challenges, specific pathways are proposed: constructing plant-led symbiotic environments, establishing multisensory activity mechanisms, and adopting community-driven management models. These recommendations provide practical guidance for enhancing therapeutic landscape experiences and promoting the sustainable advancement of rural health tourism.

1. Introduction

Since Gesler’s (1992) seminal work on therapeutic landscapes [1], numerous studies have delved into the therapeutic and health-enhancing aspects of various locations [2]. Given the backdrop of an aging populace, environmental degradation, climate change, and other health risks, the global health promotion movement has gained momentum [3]. Research on health tourism suggests that individuals often travel to specific destinations primarily to enhance their well-being [4,5,6]. Increasing evidence supports the notion that the therapeutic benefits of unspoiled natural settings such as forests, mineral springs, and mountains positively impact tourists’ welfare [7,8]. As public health awareness grows, there is a rising inclination towards pursuing an enhanced quality of life through nature-based activities, which has become a significant driver for the development of health tourism [9,10].

From a geographical perspective, the theory of “therapeutic landscape” elucidates the inherent relationship between tourist destinations and human health [11]. This theory suggests that the therapeutic effects of a landscape are influenced by its perception. The perception of therapeutic landscapes, which encompasses individuals’ embodied interactions with a place—physically, socially, and symbolically—actively contributes to the co-creation of landscape experiences [12]. As Gesler argues, landscape formation is a dynamic process, suggesting that the therapeutic landscape is “a constantly evolving process.” Early research on therapeutic landscapes primarily focused on specific extraordinary religious and natural sites known for their therapeutic properties [13]. Recent studies have broadened this focus to include locations associated with treatments or cures, such as hospitals [14] and clinics [15], as well as more commonplace environments like gardens [16], parks [17], forests [18], and rural areas [19]. Scholars have expanded the therapeutic landscape theory to incorporate symbols, space, and place, arguing that a therapeutic landscape constitutes a meaningful location [20]. When examined through a relational lens, the therapeutic landscape emerges as a positive experiential outcome resulting from the continuous interaction between individuals and their socio-physical environments [21]. Consequently, health geographers have introduced concepts such as “therapeutic assemblages” [22], “relational encounters” [23], and “therapeutic mobilities” [24]. These concepts reflect the dynamic material, emotional, and sociocultural foundations, as well as the pathways to health and well-being.

In the early 21st century, anthropologists began incorporating non-human actors—such as animals, plants, and microorganisms—into human dialogues, thereby reexamining their subjectivity and agency [25]. Simultaneously, new materialist and indigenous scholars advocate for a reconceptualization of agency in non-living entities, contending that mountains, bottles, and books should be regarded as possessing agentic capacity. By engaging with the voices of plants through observation, taste, smell, and touch, we can discern their ethical dimensions and harmonious relationships with humans [26]. Notably, plants that operate on a temporal scale beyond human perception can utilize the historical information encoded in seeds to reconstruct past landscapes and envision future ones [27]. In summary, current research predominantly focuses on either specific landscapes or the affective experiences of humans, failing to investigate how therapeutic landscape experiences emerge from the interactions between human and non-human actors. Although there is growing interest among plant geographers in the complexities of human–plant relationships, a significant gap persists in comprehending the role of plants within therapeutic landscapes. Furthermore, there is a paucity of studies examining tourists’ therapeutic landscape experiences and the spatial practices that arise from human–plant encounters.

Hence, it is crucial to further explore and enhance this area of academic research through in-depth case studies. This research establishes an analytical framework based on critical plant studies and therapeutic landscape theory, concentrating on the Xixiang Rural Garden in Erlang Town, China. The research delves into the complex relationship between tourists and local flora, such as rice paddies, lotus leaves, and blossoms, that manifests during immersive interactions. By analyzing these dynamics, this study aims to explore the following core questions: How do human–plant interactions facilitate the generation of therapeutic activities? How does the inherent interconnectedness within therapeutic landscape experiences dynamically evolve? The significance and originality of this research lie in firstly, placing non-human actors—particularly plants—at the center of therapeutic landscape research, thereby transcending previous human-centered analytical paradigms; secondly, revealing the specific mechanisms of human–plant interactions through micro-level empirical analysis, offering a novel theoretical perspective for understanding the formation of therapeutic experiences; and finally, providing policy insights grounded in ecological relationships and local practices for the sustainable development of rural health tourism, which holds clear practical guidance value.

The development of this research theme stems from the intersection of practical concerns, theoretical advancements, and disciplinary reflection: First, it arises from the practical needs embedded in everyday rural life. In an era marked by both “nostalgia economies” and health anxieties, the wisdom of human–plant coexistence found in traditional farming practices—such as rice cultivation and lotus pond management—has become a vital reference for contemporary individuals seeking to rebuild life rhythms and restore physical and mental well-being. This has shifted the focus of our research from the macroscopic forms of landscapes to the subtle yet tangible daily interactions between humans and plants. Second, it builds upon the internal evolution of academic thought. The “relational turn” and the emergence of “multispecies studies” in geography and anthropology have pushed landscape research beyond static descriptions of material forms or isolated analyses of human experiences. Instead, attention is increasingly directed toward how different life forms entangle and co-constitute each other within specific contexts. This provides the necessary theoretical foundation for recognizing plants as agential interlocutors and understanding how they participate in the co-creation of therapeutic meaning. Third, it confronts real challenges in industry development. Rural health tourism initiatives often fall into the trap of “landscape homogenization and performative experiences,” a dilemma rooted in the neglect of local ecological logics and the agency of non-human life. This study aims to address this very impasse by examining the intricate textures of human–plant interaction, seeking pathways to create therapeutic practices that embody ecological depth and cultural resonance.

This paper comprises six sections, including the Introduction. Section 2 establishes the theoretical framework by integrating critical plant studies with therapeutic landscape theory. Section 3 outlines the case selection and data collection procedures. Section 4 presents the research findings. Section 5 discusses the theoretical contributions of the study and its limitations. Section 6 concludes with the key findings and policy implications.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

2.1. Literature Review

2.1.1. Critical Plant Studies

Critical plant studies, as an interdisciplinary field, integrates environmental humanities, plant sciences, philosophy and ethics, art, and aesthetics. It offers a comprehensive analytical framework for understanding plant representations and examining the dynamics of human–plant interactions [28,29,30]. In contrast to traditional plant studies, critical plant studies emphasize the ethical status of plants and their influence on human diets, racial capitalism, and non-human labor [31,32,33,34]. This shift indicates that critical plant studies are increasingly focusing on aspects such as “plant agency” [35], “cross-cultural encounters between plants and humans” [36], and “spatial practices involving plants and humans” [37].

The first area of interest is research on plant agency. From a transhumanist geographical perspective, humans and non-humans are life forms of equal value, each occupying significant positions in the real world [38,39]. Although plants belong to a non-verbal category, they engage with humans and other entities through non-verbal communication, thereby establishing an ethical community and demonstrating the capacity to connect with diverse groups [40]. This interaction reflects a form of intelligence that is both non-individualistic and non-anthropocentric [41]. Such intelligence can be understood through three dimensions: “perception and information processing” [42], “communication and social interaction” [43], “memory and learning” [44]. First, the ability to “perceive and process information” underpins plant agency, allowing for continuous monitoring of various environmental signals. For example, plants utilize photosensitive pigments to detect the presence and intensity of light, which enables them to adjust their growth direction (phototropism) [45]. They perceive gravity, wind, and touch [46,47,48]. When certain plant leaves are touched, they may close or droop (Mimosa pudica) [49]. Roots can detect the sound of flowing water and grow toward it [50], and they can even sense the sounds of caterpillars chewing leaves, prompting the production of defensive chemicals [51]. Additionally, shaded plants make decisions based on the degree of shading, competition with neighboring plants, and their own energy reserves [52]. Second, an exploration of plant agency necessitates an examination of the relationship between “communication and social interaction” in encounters involving humans and non-humans. Some scholars propose that anthropomorphic emotional connections enhance empathy and facilitate dialogue between humans and plants [53]. We experience joy when our cherished plants bloom and sorrow when they wither. Furthermore, “memory and learning” represent essential aspects of plant agency. For example, plants can store and recall information about past events, thereby altering their response to future stress conditions. This memory capacity influences the organizational architecture of their specific systems [54]. More importantly, the temporal scales associated with plant growth and seasonal changes exert significant influence on human health, well-being, and lifestyle [55]. This mechanism, grounded in specific environmental cues and subsequent factors such as light exposure and water availability, promotes mutual physiological coordination between humans and plants through their interactions.

The second area of interest is research on cross-cultural encounters between plants and humans. From the perspective of cultivating communities of practice, engaging individuals with native species in gardens represents a socio-ecological restorative act [56]. Nevertheless, this practice often obscures the human exploitation of plants, which has resulted in the domestication of numerous species [57]. when selecting food, humans tend to choose domesticated plants that are tastier and safer, thereby eliminating certain characteristics of wild plants during the domestication process. Moreover, the inherent shared capacities and vital signs of plants are prompting a gradual reevaluation of concepts such as “agency,” “subjectivity,” and “ethics of killing,” which often conflict with human norms [58]. For example, the choice of pesticides, whether chemical or biological, in agriculture significantly influences the formation and dynamics of human–non-human relationships [59]. Based on the above research, studies examining human–plant interactions from a cross-cultural perspective reveal that while establishing connections with native species through horticultural practices helps build communities of practice and restore socio-ecological relationships, it may also obscure humanity’s history of plant utilization and domestication. This process not only alters plants’ natural characteristics but also prompts humans to reexamine concepts. Simultaneously, by exploring interspecies communication mechanisms through indigenous knowledge, the research demonstrates that plants can perceive and respond to environmental and acoustic stimuli through physiological mechanisms, exhibiting complex forms of biological agency.

The third area of interest is research on spatial practices in the encounter between plants and humans. Critical plant studies analyze multispecies spatial practices and their networked significance from the perspective of associative agency [60]. Within the framework of multispecies ethnographic knowledge, anthropocentrism is gradually becoming a relic of the past. An increasing number of scholars advocate for recognizing the fluidity and interactivity among animals, plants, humans, microorganisms, and non-living entities, underscoring the necessity for multispecies analytical methods to interpret the complex entanglements that arise from these spatial practices [61]. Some researchers employ the “resident observation” method, immersing themselves for extended periods within a specific vegetation zone. They document the climbing of vines and the alterations to soil structure wrought by root systems, thereby revealing how plants uniquely “shape” and “perceive” space [62,63]. Research indicates that spatial autocorrelation of vegetation in residential yards [64]. Adopting a multispecies perspective reveals that agricultural practices like rice and corn cultivation transcend their commodity status to become fundamental forces in shaping agricultural landscapes. They are central to the organization of field layouts and the routing of irrigation systems [65]. Moreover, multispecies spatial practices are grounded in a framework of “Multispecies justice” [66], where the design, planning, and management of space no longer cater solely to human economic or aesthetic needs; they must consider the well-being and agency of all ecological inhabitants, including plants and microorganisms.

2.1.2. Research on Therapeutic Landscapes Experience in Human–Plant Encounters

The literature review indicates that prior research has predominantly concentrated on the objective therapeutic properties of plants. Many scholars assert that various plant combinations and color changes positively influence human therapeutic experiences [67,68]. Concurrently, visitors’ lifestyle habits and health perceptions are intricately linked to plant-based therapeutics [69,70]. However, as critical plant studies have progressed, researchers have increasingly focused on the therapeutic landscape experiences arising from human–plant interactions and the practices within multispecies therapeutic spaces. This paradigm shift in research marks a transition within the field from a human-centered focus on the “instrumental” utility of plants to a relationship-centered emphasis on the symbiotic co-evolution between humans and plants [71]. The new research perspective unfolds primarily along two pathways: First, shifting from static attributes to dynamic relationships, it conceives therapeutics as a co-evolutionary experiential process. Scholars are moving beyond analyzing the objective attributes of plants—such as color and scent—to explore how human–plant interactions generate therapeutic landscape experiences [72,73]. These studies focus on plant-centered practices—such as touching and sowing—to explore their inherent therapeutic potential [74,75]. These experiential activities not only cultivate mindfulness and focus in individual visitors but also foster a profound connection to life through mutual awareness of the rhythms shared between humans and plants—growth, decay, and rebirth. It is evident that the creation of therapeutic landscape experiences is a collaborative process involving the mutual participation and influence of both human and non-human life forms (plants), rather than a result of plants unilaterally affecting humans [76].

Beyond this, scholars have also explored power and politics within therapeutic spaces from the perspective of entanglement, ranging from single species to multiple species. As an ecological domain where multiple species coexist and interact, playing a crucial role in enhancing environmental quality and promoting health and well-being, with their spatial design exhibiting certain public health policy relevance [77]. From a critical perspective, the selection of specific plants reflects human preferences [78] and aesthetic perception [79]. These meticulously designed artificial landscapes, while offering therapeutic benefits, are unlike natural landscapes, which promote human mental health and perceptual recovery [80]. Therefore, in constructing therapeutic, multispecies spaces, ecological justice must be considered-respecting the intrinsic value and agency of plants and other non-human actors-to shape a more inclusive and vibrant symbiotic system. In summary, the therapeutic landscape experience emerges from dynamic relationships and multispecies entanglements. It demands that we focus not only on the objective characteristics of plants or the subjective perceptions of visitors, but more importantly, on the ethical dimensions of human–plant interaction practices and multispecies coexistence.

2.2. Theoretical Framework

Prevailing scholarship has largely analyzed the therapeutic properties of plants through an anthropocentric lens, focusing on how objective attributes—such as scent, color, and vitality—positively shape human experiences within therapeutic landscapes. However, this dominant research paradigm is marked by significant conceptual and methodological limitations. First, it reductively frames plants as passive objects in service of human well-being, overlooking their agency and sentient capacities as living beings. Second, this ontological stance fails to address the complex power dynamics, economic dimensions, and political–cultural contexts inherent in human–plant relations. Consequently, existing studies often remain superficial, reducing such encounters to a unidirectional “stimulus–response” model and neglecting the deeper, co-constitutive mechanisms through which therapeutic experiences are produced. To address these gaps and strengthen the logical coherence of our analysis, this study integrates critical plant studies and multispecies ethnography to construct an analytical framework (Figure 1). This framework explicitly articulates the relationships between four core concepts: therapeutic landscape experience, human–plant encounters, health tourism, and the foundational perspective of critical plant studies.

Critical Plant Studies provides the essential theoretical lens. It shifts the focus from plants as mere instruments for human well-being to recognizing them as active agents with their own capacities for perception, communication, and response. This perspective is fundamental for re-theorizing human–plant encounters beyond a human-centered view.

• Human–Plant Encounters, reconceptualized through this critical lens, are the dynamic, multisensory, and materially entangled interactions where therapeutic potential is relationally generated. These encounters are the primary site of analysis.
• Therapeutic Landscape Experience is the emergent outcome of these agentic encounters. It is not a static property of a landscape or a unilateral human perception, but a process co-produced through the material–semiotic interactions between humans and plants within a specific space.
• Health Tourism constitutes the applied context and spatial practice where these theorized encounters and experiences are mobilized. Health tourism destinations (e.g., forest therapy bases, wellness resorts, and agri-tourism sites) are key settings where designed or facilitated human–plant encounters are promoted to generate therapeutic landscape experiences for visitors. Our framework critically examines how the logic and infrastructure of health tourism shape, and are shaped by, these multispecies relations.

Building on these interrelated concepts, our framework is structured around three core dimensions derived from critical plant studies: First, we build on the concept of plant agency indigenization as our theoretical foundation, drawing on plant neurobiology to conceptualize plants as living beings capable of perception, cognition, memory, communication, computation, and resistance. Within therapeutic settings, this agency, and its charismatic influence, prompts multisensory engagement from people, initiating authentic interspecies dialogue. When humans encounter plants, the latter, through their survival wisdom, allow people to perceive the “temporality” inherent in life’s rhythms. This fosters cross-species communication, guiding individuals away from modern temporal frameworks toward a “natural time” perspective. Such alignment of physiological rhythms facilitates profound therapeutic experiences. For example, gazing upon tranquil golden rice fields, people sense nature’s leisurely pace and gradually slow their own rhythms, releasing everyday pressures. Moreover, the colors, forms, and varieties of certain plants, as symbolic carriers of collective memory, vividly evoke past rural scenes through their intrinsic appeal, activating deeply rooted, tangible memories within individuals. Encountering mature rice fields, for instance, can instantly transport people back to recollections of rural life. Participating in rice harvesting further stirs warm memories of communal labor and shared harvests. This plant-mediated nostalgia alleviates “urban maladies,” countering the temporal fragmentation and alienation characteristic of modernity, thereby offering spiritual solace and therapeutic experience.

Second, we introduce a cross-cultural critical lens to examine nature narratives within therapeutic practices. The formation of human–plant relationships is inevitably situated within specific historical trajectories, cultural norms, and political–economic structures. Whether in rehabilitation gardens, urban parks, or forest therapy sites, these spaces are fundamentally shaped by human power dynamics. The selection and arrangement of plants, the removal of native “weeds,” the design of horticultural infrastructure, and the application of local ecological knowledge all reflect human colonial legacies, cultural hegemony, and the disciplining of plant life by capital. For instance, in interpreting the vertical zoning of alpine landscapes or planning ecological functional zones in rural plains, plants are often reduced to resources and functional units. This overemphasizes their economic and scenic utility while neglecting their agential role as living entities. At the same time, we draw on Indigenous knowledge to engage with plants through personification or relational understanding, recognizing their resistance, contemplating their inner world, and prompting critical reflection on human actions. This encourages alignment with the natural principles governing plant survival and corrects anthropocentric misperceptions. Thus, our framework seeks to advance an ethical critique of the instrumentalization of plants, promoting an ethos of “reciprocal symbiosis.” While pursuing human health and well-being, it calls for greater care and consideration toward plants, resisting their excessive reduction to functional objects.

Third, we employ the notion of multispecies spatial practices to investigate how therapeutic experiences unfold through human–plant encounters. Space is reconceptualized not as a passive container for human activity but as a relational achievement co-constituted by human and non-human actors, including plants, microorganisms, and soils. Through multispecies ethnography, we trace how plants actively shape space—for instance, through root exploration or canopy expansion—and influence therapeutic atmospheres. Our approach also embraces multispecies justice, critiquing human-centered design and planning that marginalizes plant needs. We examine how therapeutic landscapes often restrict plant autonomy and propose ways to redefine ecological boundaries and develop spatial designs that are responsive to non-human agencies. In summary, this article constructs a theoretical framework that repositions therapeutic landscape experiences as relationally generated through dynamic multispecies practices. By shifting the focus from static attributes to interactive and ethically engaged encounters, we open new avenues for interpreting how therapeutic emerges through more-than-human relations. This conceptual toolkit not only enriches scholarly understanding but also informs the creation of inclusive, life-sustaining therapeutic environments for all beings.

3. Methodology

3.1. Case Study Area

This study focuses on the Xixiang Rural Garden in Erlang Town, China, as its case study area (Figure 2). The site exemplifies an integrated rural complex that combines pastoral landscapes, agricultural activities, and leisure experiences. Each autumn, its expansive rice fields turn into a golden vista. Scenic walkways and viewing platforms have been incorporated into the farmland, allowing visitors to immerse themselves in the pastoral scenery and enjoy the tranquility of rural life.

A research and practice base for rice cultivation has also been established, enabling students to participate in the entire process from planting to harvesting, thereby engaging with the traditional farming culture of “gaining wisdom through rice cultivation.” Under the theme “Fun in Every Season,” a variety of crops are cultivated throughout the year: rapeseed flowers bloom in spring, while the rice fields present picturesque views in autumn. Adjacent to the paddies, extensive lotus root fields are maintained. After the rapeseed flowers fade in the hot summer, the landscape transitions into a breathtaking scene reminiscent of the classical poetic imagery of “lotus leaves stretching boundless under the sky, touched by a unique red under the sun.”

The site also offers distinctive leisure amenities, including a green-skinned train restaurant, horseback riding, and a rice field café. Beyond its aesthetic and recreational value, the area possesses rich historical and cultural significance. Nearby lies the “Ancient Road to the Capital,” a Ming Dynasty route once traversed by the national hero Lin Zexu. Along this historic post road stand the Ming-era Cunxin Bridge and the Tang-era Erlang Temple. By integrating material, sociocultural, and symbolic elements, the therapeutic landscapes of Xixiang Rural Garden constitute an exemplary wellness destination. Here, visitors may reconnect with nature, evoke rural memories, and achieve mental relaxation, making it a compelling subject for academic inquiry.

3.2. Data Collection and Methods

In terms of methodology, this study primarily adopted a qualitative approach, utilizing participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, and policy document analysis to gather rich, multi-source data. Qualitative research is widely recognized for its emphasis on real-world context, enabling researchers to uncover the underlying logics of complex social phenomena [81]. This approach is particularly suited to investigating human–plant interactions and experiences within therapeutic landscapes, aiming to inform the development of multispecies therapeutic spaces. Fieldwork was conducted by the research team in the Xixiang Rural Garden, located in Erlang Town, between October 2024 and September 2025. The research team included a member native to Erlang Town, whose deep familiarity with the local cultural setting, livelihood patterns, and customs facilitated access to the field. This insider perspective, along with established trust with villagers and local officials, significantly aided the data collection process. The data were gathered through a triangulation of methods to ensure richness and validity:

• Participatory Observation: Researchers engaged in sustained observation within the Xixiang Rural Garden, documenting daily activities, human–environment interactions, and social dynamics. Detailed field notes were maintained to capture contextual nuances and non-verbal cues.
• Semi-Structured Interviews: In-depth interviews were conducted to gain detailed insights into participants’ perceptions, experiences, and narratives.
• Policy Document Analysis: Relevant local government documents, planning reports, and project proposals related to rural revitalization and the Xixiang Rural Garden were reviewed to contextualize the field data.

This approach is particularly suited to examining the experiences associated with therapeutic landscapes through human–plant interactions and to informing the development of multispecies therapeutic spaces. To ensure sample diversity, we employed purposive stratified sampling across different age groups, genders, occupations, and geographic backgrounds. Respondents were categorized into five groups:

• Three officials from the township’s rural revitalization department;
• Three designers involved in the planning and design of Xixiang Rural Garden;
• Four village officials familiar with the project’s implementation;
• Twenty-four tourists and tour guides from urban areas;
• Fifteen long-term local residents and neighboring villagers.

The following criteria were applied in selecting interviewees:

• Officials must have been engaged in rural revitalization work locally and possess substantive knowledge of rural development and relevant policies.
• Village cadres must have led project implementation and had access to data on local participation and well-being indicators.
• Interviewees were required to demonstrate a clear understanding of the research objectives and a willingness to take part in interviews, observations, and potential follow-up studies.

Relevant interviewee information is summarized (

Table 1. Demographics of the interviewees (N = 49).

No.	Gender	Age	Educational Attainment	Role	Occupation
N1	Male	30–35	Bachelor’s Degree	policy implementation	Government official
N2	Male	35–40	Bachelor’s Degree	Rural layout planning	Government official
N3	Female	40–55	Bachelor’s Degree	Rural policy implementation	Government official
N4	Male	50–55	Associate Degree	Rural landscapes design	Rural Designer
N5	Male	55–60	Bachelor’s Degree	Rural landscapes design	Rural Designer
N6	Female	45–50	Bachelor’s Degree	Rural landscapes design	Rural Designer
N7	Male	60–65	Secondary Education	policy implementation	Village Secretary
N8	Male	30–35	Secondary Education	policy implementation	Village official
N9	Female	40–45	Secondary Education	policy implementation	Village official
N10	Male	40–45	Secondary Education	policy implementation	Village official
N11	Male	75–80	Primary Education	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N12	Male	65–70	Primary Education	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N13	Female	70–75	Secondary Education	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N14	Female	35–40	Associate Degree	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N15	Male	20–25	Associate Degree	Field research and study	Tourist
N16	Male	20–25	No Formal Schooling	Field research and study	Tourist
N17	Male	35–40	Not Reported	Work stress relief	Tourist
N18	Female	40–55	Not Reported	Visiting relatives	Tourist
N19	Male	50–55	Not Reported	Visiting relatives	Tourist
N20	Male	55–60	Primary Education	Seeking rural memories	Tourist
N21	Female	40–45	Primary Education	Seeking rural memories	Tourist
N22	Female	70–75	Bachelor’s Degree	Seeking rural memories	Tourist
N23	Male	30–35	No Formal Schooling	Tour guidance	Tour Guide
N24	Female	30–35	No Formal Schooling	Tour guidance	Tour Guide
N25	Female	20–25	Secondary Education	Tour guidance	Tour Guide
N26	Male	75–80	Not Reported	Visiting relatives	Tourist
N27	Male	50–55	Not Reported	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N28	Female	55–60	Secondary Education	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N29	Female	25–30	Secondary Education	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N30	Male	45–50	Secondary Education	therapeutic activities	Tourist
N31	Male	30–35	Secondary Education	Seeking rural memories	Tourist
N32	Male	35–40	Secondary Education	Field research and study	Tourist
N33	Female	40–55	No Formal Schooling	Seeking rural memories	Tourist
N34	Male	50–55	No Formal Schooling	Seeking rural memories	Tourist
N35	Female	20–25	Bachelor’s Degree	Sightseeing	Tourist
N36	Female	25–30	Associate Degree	Sightseeing	Tourist
N37	Female	40–45	Associate Degree	Sightseeing	Tourist
N38	Male	60–65	No Formal Schooling	Sightseeing	Tourist
N39	Male	40–45	Primary Education	Rice farmer	Villager
N40	Male	65–70	No Formal Schooling	Rice farmer	Villager
N41	Female	55–60	Primary Education	Rice farmer	Villager
N42	Male	50–55	No Formal Schooling	lotus root farmer	Villager
N43	Male	60–65	Primary Education	lotus root farmer	Villager
N44	Female	35–40	Primary Education	Business operator	Villager
N45	Male	25–30	Primary Education	Business operator	Villagers
N46	Female	25–30	Bachelor’s Degree	Coffee Shop Owner	Villagers
N47	Female	70–75	Not Reported	Ordinary Villager	Villagers
N48	Female	35–40	Bachelor’s Degree	Ordinary Villager	Villagers
N49	Male	70–75	Not Reported	Ordinary Villager	Villagers

). Furthermore, building on prior investigative experience, academic literature, and theoretical frameworks, we systematically refined the research questions and developed a structured interview protocol (

Table 2. Outline of the interview guide.

Object	Indicator	Question Description
Government official	Effectiveness of Rural Revitalization Policy and Layout of the Xixiang Rural Garden’s Therapeutic Landscape	What local policies exist for protecting rural landscapes?
		What local policies are there for protecting local plants?
		Have you ever provided guidance on the planning of rural therapeutic landscapes?
		What is the underlying concept of rural therapeutic landscape planning?
Village Secretary and Village official	The Xixiang Rural Garden’s Project Plan	How can an effective integration of “industry–village–scenery” be achieved?
		What are the main features of Xixiang Rural Garden’s therapeutic landscape?
		How can sustainable development of Xixiang Rural Garden’s therapeutic landscape be realized?
Rural Landscape Designer	The Xixiang Rural Garden’s Therapeutic Landscape Design	What is the design concept behind the Xixiang Rural Garden’s therapeutic landscape?
		What local elements are incorporated into the therapeutic landscape?
		How can harmonious coexistence between humans and multiple species be achieved?
Rice farmer	Rice Production Efficiency	How many acres of rice are planted?
		Does the rice-based industrial landscape generate economic benefits?
		What is the annual economic benefit generated by rice cultivation?
		What negative impacts are associated with the rice industry landscape?
lotus root farmer	Efficiency of Lotus Root Cultivation	How many acres are dedicated to lotus root cultivation?
		What is the annual economic benefit generated by lotus root cultivation?
		What negative impacts are associated with the lotus root industry landscape?
Business operator	Restaurant Revenue Status	How many visitors can be accommodated daily during holiday periods?
		How many visitors can be accommodated daily on non-holiday periods?
		What is the annual income of the restaurant?
Business operator	Project Revenue Status	How many people participate in horseback riding daily during holidays?
		How many people participate on non-holiday days?
		What is the annual income generated by the program?
Villager	Perception of Rural Therapeutic Landscape	Has the village environment improved or deteriorated?
		Do you feel happy living in this rural environment?
		Would you prefer to live in the county town or remain in the village?
Tour Guide	Perception of Rural Therapeutic Landscape	How do you introduce the scenic features of this area to visitors?
		What are the reasons tourists visit the place?
Tourist	Rural Landscape Attachment	What differences do you perceive between rural landscapes in the Xixiang Rural Garden and urban landscapes?
		Are you satisfied with your visit? Would you return in the future?

).

To enhance the reliability and validity of the study, we employed data source triangulation by cross-verifying information collected from multiple categories of documents. The research instrument was rigorously validated through a multi-stage process. First, three senior scholars specializing in rural sociology evaluated the questionnaire for relevance and logical consistency, and their recommendations were incorporated into subsequent revisions. Second, pilot interviews were conducted prior to formal fieldwork to assess whether the questions adequately captured real-world contexts, leading to further refinements in the interview protocol. Third, we applied member checking by returning summarized interview content to participants for confirmation. Finally, we ensured data credibility and consistency through iterative comparisons of responses across different interviewee groups, supplemented by cross-referencing with relevant policy documents.

The data collection procedure unfolded as follows. First, access to the Xixiang Rural Garden was facilitated through an introduction by the village Party Secretary, who served as an intermediary in connecting the research team with township government officials and local farmers. Second, employing snowball sampling, we carried out preliminary semi-structured interviews in October and November 2024 with key participants representing diverse stakeholder groups—including three township officials, three landscape designers, four village cadres, and five tourists—to gain a foundational understanding of the context. Insights from these initial interviews informed the refinement of our interview protocols and questionnaires. Subsequently, in October 2024, April 2025, and June 2025, we conducted further semi-structured interviews with 20 tourists. With support from village cadres, we also organized villager forums at the village Party branch office, involving a total of 50 participants. Each interview and forum session lasted approximately 60–80 min, during which detailed notes were taken and on-site photographs were captured. All participants were anonymized to protect their privacy. To supplement the primary data, research team members systematically reviewed literature using academic databases such as the Web of Science Core Collection. They also collected secondary materials from government websites, multimedia platforms, newspapers, books, journals, policy documents, and rural planning reports. These sources provided key contextual information on rural policies, landscape planning, and visitor experiences, thereby substantiating the empirical findings of the study.

3.3. Data Analysis

This study develops a theoretical framework, informed by existing literature, to analyze visitors’ experiences within therapeutic landscapes and the interactive mechanisms underlying therapeutic space practices. In accordance with established qualitative case study methodology, the analytical process was organized into three iterative and interdependent stages: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing verification [82].

Data reduction, the first stage, entailed selecting, simplifying, and transforming qualitative textual data. This process involved condensing, summarizing, and labeling raw materials to establish a structured foundation for subsequent analysis. When redundancies or inconsistencies were identified in later stages, the team revisited this phase to refine the data further. Over nearly a year of fieldwork, the research team accumulated a substantial body of primary and secondary qualitative data through follow-up interviews in the Xixiang Rural Garden. Given the volume and complexity of the raw data, the team systematically categorized and condensed the materials. Interview transcripts from government officials, village cadres, tourists, tour guides, local residents, and surrounding villagers were organized sequentially and by frequency into categories labeled H1 through H6. Secondary materials—including news reports and policy documents—were classified as H7. The research team then divided into two groups of three to four members each. Each group independently coded the interview data and collected materials, making iterative adjustments throughout the analytical process. This preliminary independent coding aimed to identify key constructs, processes, and logical relationships within the dataset.

Data display, the second stage, focused on the systematic organization and refinement of the coded data to facilitate comparative analysis [83]. Adopting a comparative logic, we categorized the landscape development of Xixiang Rural Garden into pre- and post-intervention conditions for analytical purposes. Emphasis was placed on identifying common patterns in the formation of therapeutic landscape experiences, as well as tracing the evolution of visitors’ therapeutic perceptions and their engagement with therapeutic spatial practices. To ensure coding accuracy, a dual verification mechanism was employed. First, internal group discussions were held to review coding outcomes, with discrepancies resolved through iterative deliberation until consensus was achieved. Second, cross-group verification sessions were conducted after both teams completed independent coding, allowing for cross-validation of findings. Remaining inconsistencies were addressed through further negotiation or third-party arbitration, thereby reinforcing the reliability and precision of the coding results.

Conclusion drawing and verification, the final stage, involved applying the established theoretical framework to examine the interactive dynamics of “the evolution of visitors’ therapeutic experiences” and “therapeutic spatial practices.” Guided by case study methodology, multi-source data were validated through an iterative process following the logic of “data → correlation → framework → case → theory,” which enhanced the explanatory reproducibility of the findings. Through comparative validation that integrated theoretical constructs, empirical evidence, and emerging insights, this study affirms the internal consistency and conceptual originality of the proposed framework: the interactive mechanism governing the evolution of visitors’ therapeutic landscape experiences and therapeutic spatial practices in human–plant encounters.

This study fully acknowledges the potential biases that may arise from the insider status of the researcher. To systematically mitigate this issue, the following measures were implemented: First, during the data collection phase, the research team incorporated external researchers to participate in interviews and observations. Their independent perspectives helped balance the preconceptions of the local researcher. The design and implementation of the interview protocols were discussed multiple times within the team to ensure the questions remained open, neutral, and free from leading tendencies. Second, during the data analysis process, we rigorously adhered to the aforementioned dual verification and cross-group validation mechanisms. The procedures of independent coding, intra-group discussions, and cross-group arbitration essentially placed individual interpretations under collective scrutiny. Through the collision and negotiation of multiple perspectives, subjective tendencies arising from a single viewpoint were effectively filtered out. Finally, during the conclusion-forming stage, we continuously triangulated preliminary findings with existing theories and raw data. Particular attention was paid to evidence and cases that contradicted the researcher’s initial expectations, which were subjected to in-depth analysis and rational interpretation to ensure that the conclusions were grounded in the data itself rather than personal experience. These steps collectively constitute a rigorous validation system, which minimizes the potential impact of insider status on the objectivity of the research and ensures the credibility of both the analytical process and the findings.

4. Findings

4.1. Human–Plant Encounters Generate Therapeutic Landscape Experiences

4.1.1. The Order of Life in the Xixiang Rural Garden

The living order in Xixiang’s rural garden is established through the interaction between humans and plants within a specific spatial scope, exhibiting a certain degree of coherence. This living order is not shaped merely by agricultural cycles or landscape design but is more akin to a foundational structural principle. It frames the relationship between time, labor, perception, and social meaning, thereby enhancing the landscape’s therapeutic functions and promoting visitors’ experiences of healing within such landscapes. Here, the interaction between humans and plants is not passive but mutual engagement, where human practices and plant life cycles mutually reinforce and coexist, contributing to the construction of a spatiotemporal structure characterized by resilience and adaptability.

This order manifests primarily through the temporal rhythm co-established by plants and humans. Rice, as the dominant plant agent, imposes a strict phenological schedule—spring sowing, summer growth, autumn harvest, winter storage—that dictates the rhythm of agricultural labor and visitor engagement. Farmers adhere to this schedule through meticulous practices (e.g., water management, pest control), demonstrating a fundamental respect for natural law. This adherence is not purely technical; it is a ritualized repetition that weaves human activity into the fabric of natural time. For urban visitors, encountering this pre-existing, non-negotiable rhythm offers a stark contrast to the fragmented, accelerated pace of city life. The predictable, seasonal progression of the rice provides a “ritualistic sense of existence” (Figure 3), a stable temporal anchor that fosters psychological security and a perception of a larger, enduring life order. As a tourist from the city observed, “Heavy rice ears bow low, forming undulating waves of gold in the autumn breeze, as if the entire field has been transformed by the sunset into a flowing sea of gold. This scene is both a timeless promise from the land to its people and a reward for the farmers’ hard work. It resonates deeply with me—perhaps this is what captivates me most about rice” (N29, 20241022). This bidirectional interaction between humans and plants collectively constructs therapeutic rural landscapes. Plants, through their life rhythms and physical attributes, provide urban dwellers with a multisensory experience that transcends visual perception. Meanwhile, humans achieve self-reconstruction and spiritual restoration in this space through physical engagement and emotional resonance. Such an intersubjective interactive relationship further deepens our understanding of the generative mechanisms underlying therapeutic landscapes. A rice farming specialist explained to visitors, “The rice grown in the fields of Xixiang is superior to that of other regions because we invest considerable time and effort in every stage—from sowing and fertilizing to regulating water temperature and managing pests. We nurture it with care, and it senses our dedication and affection. That’s why it grows so strong” (N39, 20241021). This reflects a relational agency where the plant’s requirements actively shape human action, and human care is perceived as being received and reciprocated by the plant’s vitality. Thus, the order is dialogic, born from this intersubjective relationship.

Secondly, the order of life is reinforced through the establishment of a spatial and moral framework. The physical structure of the paddy field—with its defined ridges, uniform rows, and clear boundaries—organizes movement and perception. Visitors instinctively walk along the ridges, their movement guided by the plants’ spatial arrangement. More profoundly, the plant’s life form communicates a non-verbal ethos. The mature rice stalk bowing low is perceived not just as a visual spectacle but as an embodiment of humility and patience. This morphology, interpreted through human cultural frameworks, transmits natural wisdom. One tourist, who was experiencing significant work-related stress, shared, “When I closed my eyes and paused for a moment, a deep sense of relaxation came over me. The pressing deadlines, complicated relationships, and the noise of city life felt distant. Watching the mature rice stalks bowing gently, I was struck by their humble and patient demeanor. In that moment, I understood the ‘wisdom of waiting’—it eased my anxiety” (N28, 20241026). Here, the plant’s agency lies in its ecological aesthetic and life form, which actively propose values—patience, humility, resilience—that counter the pressures of modern life. The order, therefore, is both spatial and ethical, offering a template for reordering one’s inner state. Thus, the rice landscape—an organic symbiosis of sunlight, soil, water, and agricultural knowledge—exhibits agency through its ecological aesthetic. It effectively fosters emotional connections to the land, home, and rural life, alleviating feelings of anxiety, helplessness, and loneliness, thereby offering a type of therapeutic landscape experience.

Finally, this order facilitates a profound integration of memory and belonging. The cyclical, predictable nature of plant life acts as a powerful mnemonic device, triggering deeply embedded rural nostalgia and personal history. The order is not new to many visitors; it reawakens a latent, culturally shared order associated with homeland and childhood. Human perception and emotional projection have endowed the intrinsic vitality of plants with new meaning. The role of rice has long transcended the boundaries of conventional agriculture. This phenomenon reflects not only farmers’ fundamental respect for the laws of nature but also a tangible expression of the emotional bond between humans and plants. As one visitor recalled, “When I was a child, the arrival of the Grain Rain season meant my grandfather would diligently transplant rice seedlings in the paddies to keep to the farming schedule and ensure the rice grew well. I often joined him to help. Listening to N39’s explanation brought me right back to those memories. The scene feels so familiar, as if it happened only yesterday” (N31, 20241017). This integration transforms individualized sensory experience (which is explored in detail in Section 4.1.3) into a shared, structural resonance. The therapeutic effect is amplified as the visitor’s personal narrative is harmonized with the enduring, collective narrative of agricultural life. The plant, through its consistent rhythm and form, becomes the stable reference point around which these memories coalesce, fostering a sense of continuity and belonging.

In summary, the Order of Life in the Xixiang Rural Garden is a generative structure co-constructed by the phenological agency of plants and the rhythmic, careful practices of humans. It provides a stable temporal rhythm, a spatial and ethical framework, and a conduit for integrating memory. This order forms the foundational bedrock upon which more individualized, multisensory experiences (discussed in Section 4.1.3) gain deeper meaning and therapeutic potency. It is the macro-level pattern that makes the micro-level sensory interactions coherent and restorative. These findings collectively demonstrate that plants, through their inherent life rhythms and physical attributes, establish a bidirectional interactive mechanism with humans. On one hand, farmers’ meticulous cultivation practices and visitors’ emotional projections activate the agency of plants, enabling them to transcend their material existence and become emotional conduits for human physical and mental therapeutics. On the other hand, plants continuously transmit natural wisdom and energy to humans through their growth cycles, morphological transformations, and phenological characteristics, subtly guiding individuals to reestablish connections with the land and facilitating self-reconstruction and spiritual restoration. This reciprocal and symbiotic dynamic vividly illustrates the profound significance of human–plant interaction as the core mechanism underlying therapeutic landscapes. In summary, the natural rhythms of plants and the social rhythms of humans converge, creating a resilient order of life. This interplay encourages visitors to reflect on the virtues of patience, humility, and the importance of maintaining inner calm. Furthermore, this dynamic human–plant relationship evokes nostalgia for past rural experiences, thereby enhancing its therapeutic effect.

4.1.2. Ecological Zoning in the Xixiang Rural Garden

Informed by indigenous knowledge, the Xixiang Rural Garden has been thoughtfully zoned into four distinct ecological areas: rice cultivation zones, lotus root farming sectors, Buddhist faith precincts, and leisure living spaces (Figure 4). These divisions function not only as practical arrangements for agricultural production but also as open-air learning environments dedicated to preserving local wisdom and facilitating cross-cultural dialogue. In the rice cultivation zones, neatly partitioned paddies adhere to the rhythms of the twenty-four solar terms. Visitors are encouraged to observe or take part in the full agricultural cycle—from spring plowing to autumn harvest—enabling a deep appreciation of natural cyclical processes. In contrast, the lotus root cultivation areas exemplify adaptive land use strategies: the conversion of low-lying, flood-prone fields into vibrant lotus ponds effectively curbs land abandonment while generating rich wetland landscapes, reflecting a responsive approach to ecological constraints. At the core of the Buddhist faith precinct lies the millennia-old Erlang Temple, whose cultural ethos embodies the principle of “harmonious coexistence between humanity and the earth.” Here, folk beliefs merge with ecological education, allowing visitors to grasp the local reverence for both the divine and the natural environment and to contemplate the gratitude owed to the land. The leisure living spaces integrate these ecological and cultural elements into the fabric of daily life. Residents and visitors alike may inhabit, wander, or meditate within these areas, experiencing a tangible connection to the land, nature, and rural scenery. This integration elevates the countryside into a vibrant, immersive living community.

Rooted in the paddy-dominated landscape, these four ecological zones integrate material production, natural ecology, spiritual beliefs, and daily life into an interconnected whole. Driven by cross-cultural engagement, visitors are guided to reexamine their relationships with plants and the land, awakening reverence for natural laws and fostering harmonious coexistence between humans, flora, and the broader environment. As one returning visitor reflected, “The locals farm in strict accordance with the twenty-four solar terms, acting in alignment with natural principles and showing reverence for nature and the divine. This has inspired me deeply: we also should respect natural rhythms, adapt to them, cultivate patience, reject haste, and find our place within the larger order of life—to truly know ourselves” (N25, 20250615). Through hands-on participation in farming, observation of wetland ecosystems, and immersion in spiritual and pastoral life, visitors undergo a profound shift—from merely “consuming rural scenery” to critically reflecting on their relationship with nature. The core value of these ecological divisions lies in translating the agency of plants and place-based knowledge into tangible, emotionally resonant practices. By engaging in therapeutic landscape experiences—such as walking amid rice fields, contemplating lotus ponds, and meditating in sacred spaces—visitors not only reconsider modern modes of production and lifestyle but also attain bodily restoration and a realignment of their inner order.

The unique ecosystem of Xixiang Rural Garden offers visitors a sense of stability during cross-cultural interactions with plants. This stability helps ease the potential tension between pastoral ecology and the incorporation of homestays, tourist facilities, and residential areas—transforming the dynamic among plants, local culture, farmers, and tourists. Plants such as rice and lotus roots help sustain this balance in their encounters with humans, strengthening the continuity between people and pastoral ecological zones and deepening the therapeutic landscape experience. A frequent visitor seeking rest and recuperation shared, “Walking among the rice paddies and lotus ponds, breathing in the scent of earth and plants, I feel a unique sense of peace and stability. These familiar crops give me a deep, reassuring feeling of belonging” (N34, 20250611). Such experiences not only reinforce visitors’ connection to the natural environment but also sustain the harmonious coexistence of local ecology and cultural landscapes. In this context, plants transcend mere decoration—they become carriers of cultural memory and emotional therapeutics, continuously shaping lasting interactions between people and the land. As another visitor reflected, “Ripe rice bows its head in quiet reverence, without boast or display, humbly paying homage to the earth. Though the lotus leaf withers, it remains unbroken, hiding its mature fruit deep within the soil—quiet, unassuming, yet full of dignity. It is this simple and humble spirit that heals.” (N33, 20250613).

In summary, it becomes evident that the Xixiang Rural Garden has established a multidimensional space facilitating cross-cultural and cross-species dialogue through carefully designed ecological zoning. Plant-based landscapes such as rice paddies and lotus ponds transcend mere productive and aesthetic functions, serving as emotional bridges that connect people with the land. Through ongoing interaction with visitors, these landscapes foster a sense of belonging, inner tranquility, and deep therapeutic immersion. Whether in the bowed posture of ripe rice ears or the quiet resilience of lotus leaves, there lies a simple yet tenacious vitality. Here, humans, plants, and the ecosystem engage in continuous reciprocal exchange, mutually nurturing one another. In their daily lives and productive activities, people maintain the stability of the landscape by respecting nature and its principles, while the pastoral landscape nourishes the human spirit through its beauty and life-sustaining order, offering rich, meaningful therapeutic landscape experiences.

4.1.3. Multisensory Experience in the Xixiang Rural Garden

As visitors immerse themselves in the pastoral ambiance of Xixiang Rural Garden (Figure 5), they embark on a rich and varied sensory journey, one that reawakens nostalgic memories of idyllic rural life while interweaving tactile, visual, gustatory, and physiological experiences. Here, a subtle dialogue unfolds between humans and plants: vibrant colors, gentle rhythms, and the fresh fragrance of flora intimately connect memory with sensory perception. When visitors behold golden waves of rice and taste newly harvested grains, childhood memories once faded by time are vividly revived. These encounters not only stimulate the senses but also evoke deep emotions, reconnecting people with the countryside through the silent language of plants and soil. Each interaction with nature becomes a moment of profound significance, reviving the past through emotional resonance and imbuing the experience with a distinct therapeutic quality. As one visitor reflected, “Harvesting rice was the happiest time of my childhood. While the adults were busy harvesting and threshing, we would chase loaches in the rice fields, roast sweet potatoes over straw fires, and run and laugh without a care—completely at ease and relaxed” (N27, 20241019). Another visitor remarked, “Touching the rice stalks amidst the rustling wind and birdsong in the fields creates an almost instantaneous sense of being transported back to my grandfather’s threshing floor” (N14, 20241019). Hands-on experiences—such as harvesting rice with sickles alongside local farmers or operating traditional threshing equipment—reveal deeper aspirations: a desire to connect with nature, reclaim rural nostalgia, and pursue inner restoration.

These activities serve to mitigate the psychological stresses associated with modern living. Through diverse plant-centered interactive experiences, a multisensory immersion unfolds: visitors may stroll along field ridges capturing photographs, gallop on horseback across rice paddies to take in the pastoral scenery, or dine in a sleek train-themed restaurant overlooking the terraced fields, each engaging with the landscape in their own way. The combination of dynamic activities with the quiet vitality of plant life deepens participants’ emotional engagement. To further enrich the experience, some visitors take part directly in farming tasks, such as transplanting rice seedlings, harvesting fruit, or touching soil and crops, gaining firsthand insight into the growth cycles of plants. Others join local guides to learn about plant species and the folklore associated with them. These activities stimulate sight, sound, smell, touch, and even taste, blurring the line between observer and natural setting. Through such participatory engagement, plants cease to be merely static elements of the scenery and become dynamic mediators, linking cultural memory with local embodied experience and fostering a more nuanced understanding of agricultural ecology. As one tourist reflected, “The anxieties brought by city life seem to disperse with the breeze over the rice fields. My whole being relaxed. The rhythms of crop growth and the scent of soil collectively reawakened my perception of life” (N11, 20250618). These immersive activities centered around plants seamlessly blend experiences of agricultural practices and natural landscapes. Not only do they help alleviate the pressures of urban life, but they also awaken a deeper appreciation for the essence of life, enhancing the therapeutic landscape experience.

These plant-mediated interactions deepen visitors’ ties to local culture. Through hands-on engagement in rice planting and harvesting, participants gain an embodied understanding of agricultural labor and the fulfillment of its yield. By listening to folktales linked to native plants, they become part of the narrative of agrarian cultural heritage. Activities such as horseback riding and tasting local cuisine further extend the therapeutic landscape into dynamic, multisensory encounters. Ultimately, sharing the joys of harvest and aligning with natural rhythms cultivates a sense of rural belonging among visitors. More than recreational pastimes, these experiences provoke deeper reflection on the symbiotic relationships among plants, people, and place.

4.2. Therapeutic Spatial Practices and Reflections in Human–Plant Encounters

4.2.1. The Dilemma of Anthropocentric Practice: The Ecological Cost of Infrastructure

Lacking the nervous systems and distinctive consciousness found in humans, plants are fundamentally different from people in biological terms. This distinction often relegates them to a subordinate role in multispecies interactions, constraining their inherent agency. When humans interact with plants across spatial, cultural, and economic spheres, human intentions are frequently imposed through technological interventions, spatial planning, and symbolic appropriation, forcing plant life to conform to human basic needs, aesthetic standards, or capitalist imperatives. By reconfiguring traditional rice farming systems, the Xixiang Rural Garden designs rural landscapes that cater to contemporary consumer expectations. Viewing platforms and elevated walkways crisscross the paddies, transforming natural agricultural ecosystems into meticulously choreographed scenes for observation and passage. Horse trails along field ridges, along with the trendy Green Train Restaurant, further integrate plants into leisure consumption circuits and the experience economy (Figure 6). Yet such extensive artificial modifications and consumption-driven interventions raise multiple concerns regarding the natural survival of plants. Viewing platforms and walkways necessitate strict controls over rice planting density and row spacing, while horse trails and visitor foot traffic cause soil compaction and root damage, directly impairing the plant’s ability to absorb water and nutrients. In this process, rural vegetation increasingly becomes emblematic of landscape consumption—its growth rhythms and ecological functions entirely subordinated to human economic agendas and aesthetic preferences.

Compounded by additional stressors such as increased trampling, noise pollution, and littering, plant growth becomes severely disrupted. Infrastructure developments, often indifferent to plant vitality, ultimately undermine the quality of visitors’ therapeutic landscape experiences. A local rice farmer expressed this sentiment: “Previously, seedlings could take root anywhere in the field. But since agritourism started—with its planned paths, fixed spacing, and construction—our paddies have been reduced to mere scenic props. Rice along the footpaths can’t penetrate the hardened soil, taking half a month longer to sprout than elsewhere. Tourists trample the soil while taking photos in the fields, compacting it so severely that rice roots can’t breathe. Many plants are on the verge of dying. Farming now feels like we’re staging a pastoral scenery show” (N40,20250611). Meanwhile, a tourist also expressed dissatisfaction: “While these basic facilities make sightseeing and taking photos easier, I feel they have compromised the authentic rural atmosphere I remember from my childhood. The sight of free-roaming poultry and the gentle smoke rising from kitchen chimneys are gone. These deliberately arranged scenes feel artificial and out of place, creating a sense of dissonance” (N13, 20250620). These landscape practices, which treat plants and ecosystems as instruments for human use, accelerate the commodification of agricultural spaces. This transformation consistently intensifies environmental pressures and ecological degradation. Consequently, it not only undermines the therapeutic value of the rural idyll but also compels a critical re-examination of sustainable land resource management.

In this process, rice has been transmuted from an object of traditional farming into a visual element and spatial symbol within a landscape installation. Here, plant agency is markedly diminished: rice plants cannot choose their growing conditions, nor can they resist the human redefinition of their form, distribution, and function. Despite their innate potential for action, they persist in a state of “powerless resistance”—silenced under human control. As one designer noted, “In the planning process, we treated the rice paddies as malleable landscape components. While platforms and footpaths disrupt the ecological continuity of the fields, market-driven demands necessitate reorganizing spatial symbols so that vegetation aligns with the principles of the experience economy” (N5,20250412). Another local official emphasized, “Developing paddy landscapes is a key strategy for rural revitalization. Initiatives such as miniature train restaurants and equestrian trails repurpose traditional crops to attract tourism revenue. Although this approach alters plants’ natural growth patterns, it remains essential for fostering urban–rural coordination” (N2,20250617). Yet this narrative of silence does not mark the end of the story. Within human-constructed systems, plants resist in subtle but significant ways. Rice paddies that have been transformed into planned landscapes often exhibit stunted growth due to soil compaction from tourist footfall or suffer from water eutrophication caused by restaurant effluent. This vital instinct—a form of “quiet rebellion”—urges managers and visitors alike to reflect on their actions. This one-sided dynamic of control reflects a broader human dilemma in contemporary society. On one hand, extensive networks of scenic trails can sever the authentic emotional bond between people and the land. On the other hand, artificially designed immersive rural experiences may trivialize the symbiotic wisdom of agrarian civilization by framing it within a consumerist paradigm. Infrastructure built without regard for the lives of people or plants often becomes an elegant yet isolating island—a symbol of disconnection.

This suggests that when landscape designers approach visitors’ therapeutic experiences as a form of unidirectional consumption, they unintentionally reveal humanity’s enduring desire to dominate nature. Although artificial landscapes may offer sensory stimulation, they often undermine the authentic relationships between people, plants, and place, reducing time-honored symbiotic wisdom into mere consumable symbols. Within the framework of localized consumerism and spatial reorganization, plant life is increasingly instrumentalized as an element of rural scenery. Such physical and artificial interventions have subordinated plant agency and subjectivity entirely to human economic agendas. This dynamic calls for deeper reflection: genuinely therapeutic landscapes must move beyond anthropocentric paradigms, honor the ecological rhythms of diverse species, reconfigure human–plant ethical relations, and incorporate humanistic values. Only through a balance between landscape consumption and ecological integrity can rural therapeutic landscapes attain meaningful sustainability.

4.2.2. The Subjective Practice of Plants: The Resistance and Wisdom of Lotus Leaves

In the setting of Xixiang Rural Garden, rice paddies and lotus leaves thrive together in a mutually beneficial relationship. While sharing the same environment, the two species interact with the world in distinct ways, each embodying a unique philosophy of existence. As autumn turns to winter, the withered lotus stems gradually bend downward, returning to the earth and entering into a new symbiotic relationship with other organisms (Figure 7). Fungi decompose the fallen leaves, converting them into nutrients that sustain the root systems below the water. Although rooted in mud, the lotus maintains a pure and upright posture. Through their quiet resilience, these plants convey to humans a sense of inner vitality and a subtle yet tenacious form of resistance—one expressed not through overt opposition but through renewal emerging from decay. The lotus does not resist withering; instead, it embraces decline, using its decomposed form to nourish the beauty of the next season. Its presence is affirmed through acceptance and tranquility, rather than struggle. As one guide noted, “I often encourage visitors to observe the withered lotus and reflect on its distinctive qualities: resilience in the face of wind and frost, composure in decay, and a quiet dignity that returns to simplicity after radiance. These traits inspire reflection on the philosophy of life and the laws of nature, leading to self-examination, ultimately, emotional resonance and therapeutic in personal journeys” (N23,20241015). The vitality of the lotus leaf persists in another form, not ending in extinction. This transformation of decay into continuous life mirrors how individuals, in times of difficulty, quietly restructure their inner selves and emerge renewed. A professional lotus grower stated, “The wisdom of the lotus leaf lies in accepting each phase of its existence, undisturbed by external conditions. It grows quietly, preserving its inner peace” (N42,20241022).

The emotional connection between lotus leaves and visitors is also influenced by ecological aesthetics. In classical gardens and lakeside landscapes, withered lotus stems do not signify the end of life; they represent resilience. Bent stalks and drooping leaves go beyond mere decay, embodying an aesthetic that values imperfection as a form of wholeness. The life cycle of the lotus, from flourish to decline, serves as a medium for reflecting on gain and loss. This experience helps visitors develop a transcendent perspective, contributing to emotional therapeutics. Such engagement fosters a shared practice of multispecies therapeutic spaces, where humans, lotus plants, water, ponds, dams, and other beings form an organic whole. This practice reconstructs human–plant coexistence, not through domination or alienation but through respect for the independent agency and “personhood” of plants, promoting equal dialogue across species. Observations reveal that interactions between visitors and withered lotus flowers manifest in distinct patterns: approximately 70% of visitors pause to observe the withered blooms and take photos alongside them; 10% engage in discussions with companions about the resilience of life and its cyclical nature; while another 20% linger for extended periods, gazing at them in quiet contemplation. These behavioral patterns indicate that the withered lotus, through its inherent vitality, remains largely undisturbed by the human elements within the pastoral setting. This transformation process encourages visitors to reflect on the essence of existence, contributing not only to their emotional recovery but also enhancing their understanding of plant life cycles.

4.2.3. The Shift in Human Practice: Empathy, Reflection, and Behavioral Change

The therapeutic landscape experience in the Xixiang Rural Garden offers visitors not only sensory enjoyment but also evokes a deeper empathy toward plant life, gradually enabling them to recognize the inherent vitality and ecological wisdom embedded in vegetation. This transformative engagement encourages a shift from being passive “observers” to becoming attentive “perceivers.” Visitors begin to consciously note plants’ life cycles, adaptive behaviors, and contributions to the ecosystem. Through immersive interaction, individuals come to perceive plants as active living beings capable of growth, responsiveness, and resilience—rather than as static or passive elements of the landscape. This cognitive transition fosters genuine ecological empathy, prompting critical reflection on previously taken-for-granted behaviors. As one visitor noted, “I used to consider walking through rice fields to take photographs as completely acceptable. Now I realize that such self-centered actions ignore the possibility that plants possess a form of ‘sensory awareness.’ Trampling rice plants causes them ‘pain’ as well” (N10,20250618). The visitor added that humans and plants should establish harmonious coexistence through mutual respect, rather than relationships based on domination. Reflections signal an important shift from anthropocentric viewpoints toward eco-centric and plant-inclusive perspectives.

Studies suggest that by metaphorically “stepping into the plant’s world,” visitors form new emotional and cognitive connections with flora. This attentiveness encourages a critical reassessment of the systemic marginalization of plant life in modern society and helps cultivate more ethically grounded and ecologically sensitive human–plant relations. Another visitor’s reflections further illustrate this shift: “Excessive human intervention not only diminishes the authentic charm of the rural landscape but also compromises its therapeutic function. We should avoid excessive intervention in plant growth, restrict human-led landscape modification of rice paddies, and prevent the construction of disruptive infrastructure. Preserving the authenticity of pastoral scenery is essential. I believe such measures can strengthen visitors’ sense of belonging and enrich the therapeutic experience” (N16, 20250612). This shift manifests across emotional, behavioral, and value dimensions. Visitors increasingly emphasize respect for plant habitats and acknowledge plants as fundamental components of ecosystems. Such awareness has informed management practices in the scenic area. For instance, responding to visitor feedback and advocacy, certain artificial structures have been removed. A minimal-intervention management approach has been adopted to foster therapeutic environments aligned with human–plant coexistence.

Overall, within these multispecies therapeutic spaces, immersive experiences lead visitors to reconsider the interrelationships among humans, plants, and place. These reflections deepen understandings of sustainable coexistence. Importantly, these perceptual and behavioral changes are fundamentally inspired by the plants themselves through their vitality, seasonal rhythms, and quiet agency. Thus, practically speaking, encounters between visitors and plants in the Xixiang Rural Garden facilitate not only individual-level benefits such as relaxation, emotional recovery, and self-awareness, but also stimulate broader rethinking of the life order within the Anthropocene. An ecological community—gradually co-created through dynamic interactions among humans, plants, and their shared environment—is emerging from these meaningful exchanges.

5. Discussion

5.1. Theoretical Expansion of the Therapeutic Landscape: An Interactive Perspective

The theory of therapeutic landscape includes conceptual frameworks such as empowering places, multispecies encounters, symbolic interactions, and actor–network systems. Within this theoretical framework, the mechanisms of therapeutic landscape perception and mental well-being [84], the multiple mediations between flow experiences and nostalgia [85], and restorative experiences were analyzed [86]. These studies suggest that human experiences of therapeutic landscapes arise from the interactions between individuals and their socio-physical environments [87]. However, the current academic understanding of the mechanisms governing interactions between human and non-human actors, such as plants, remains limited. This limitation arises from the relatively ambiguous conceptual interpretations within therapeutic landscape theory. Given that interactions between human and non-human actors constitute a complex dynamic process, and acknowledging that non-human actors possess agency. Recognizing that these interactions constitute a complex, dynamic process wherein non-human actors possess agency, this study introduces a critical plant theory perspective to broaden the cognitive boundaries of therapeutic landscape theory.

The primary theoretical contribution of this research lies in its explicit integration of critical plant studies to elucidate the co-creative agency within human–plant relationships. The findings reveal that visitors’ therapeutic experiences emerge from the complex interplay of “plants–humans–nature–sociocultural environment.” The therapeutic function of the site primarily arises from meaningful emotional interactions between human and non-human actors, including plants and microorganisms. Some research also highlights that human therapeutic experiences are physiological and psychological outcomes of individual immersion in specific physical, social, and symbolic environments [88]. Therapeutic effects manifest as relational outcomes resulting from interactions with the landscape [89]. For individuals, while initial interactions with non-human actors may be material, they encompass an emotional dimension that transcends this materiality, a facet overlooked in existing literature.

Our research demonstrates that rice, through its color, form, temporal attributes, and embedded life philosophy, stimulates visitors’ visual, tactile, and multisensory experiences. It guides individuals to recall childhood memories within the resilient order of life and to contemplate the “wisdom of waiting.” The interaction between plant agency and visitors’ physical and mental states further deepens the therapeutic experience. At the same time, through the act of “empathizing with plants,” visitors enter into a cross-cultural dialogue. They actively perceive the resistance consciousness and bodily spirituality embodied in lotus leaves and flowers, which prompts a critical reevaluation of modernity’s encroachment upon plant habitats and its resulting secondary harm. This process leads to tangible changes in artificially constructed therapeutic landscapes, such as the removal of certain infrastructure and the reduction in compression and interference in plant living spaces. Thus, this study theoretically expands the therapeutic landscape framework by proposing that therapeutic experiences are co-created through continuous behavioral coordination and emotional bonding between human and non-human actors during their encounters, moving beyond static, connection-based models.

5.2. Interactive Mechanisms Between the Therapeutic Landscape Experiences and Therapeutic Space Practices

Assessing therapeutic landscape experiences from a static relational perspective has limited explanatory power. As our analysis indicates, alongside perceptive experiences, the spatial practices performed by both human and non-human actors are crucial in transforming therapeutic experiences—a gradual process often requiring cyclical repetition. Such transformations tend to emerge gradually, often requiring multiple cycles to become fully apparent. Related research further supports the view that “therapeutic processes unfold within specific places (or environments, sites)” [90]. For example, collective activities, such as group singing among seniors in parks or yoga practice among young people in gyms, integrate the mobile experience of therapeutic landscapes into supportive social contexts [91,92]. These findings reveal a significant correlation between individuals’ experiences within therapeutic landscapes and their spatial practices, underscoring the need for deeper investigation into their interactive mechanisms (Figure 8).

A key mechanistic contribution of this study is the conceptualization of therapeutic experience as emerging through a recursive cycle of spatial practice → relationship formation → experiential evolution, rather than a linear sequence. This dynamic reflects the non-static, processual nature of human encounters with therapeutic landscapes. In the context of Xixiang Rural Garden, repeated visitor engagement and participation in spatial practices drive the continuous evolution of therapeutic experience through three core, interrelated mechanisms:

• Plant Agency Mechanism. Through seasonal rhythms and morphological changes, plants actively co-construct spatial experience. Observable phenomena, such as rice growth and lotus regeneration, demonstrate ecological resilience, guiding visitors and site managers away from anthropocentric dominance toward an appreciation of natural law and plant agency. This shift supports human–plant symbiosis and progressively enriches the therapeutic landscape experience.
• Cross-Cultural Dialogue Mechanism. Within frameworks of indigenous knowledge, people engage plants through cross-cultural communication. By employing anthropomorphic or objectifying forms of dialogue, they access the plant’s world and reflect upon its perspective. Traditional ecological wisdom helps temper the impacts of modernity, fostering inner equilibrium and stabilizing human–rural landscape relationships. Participatory practices further reinforce regional identity, intensifying the therapeutic effect of the landscape.
• Multisensory Interaction Mechanism. Landscapes composed of diverse species, including plants and microorganisms, stimulate human perception through visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile channels. Within this multisensory system, individuals advance from sensory awakening to emotional resonance with plants, ultimately cultivating a tangible sense of belonging and well-being. This study proposes that through cyclical iterations of spatial practice and cognitive reflection, human–plant encounters collectively shape the emergence and evolution of therapeutic landscape experiences. Initial sensory impressions are thereby transformed into deeper ecological understanding and multispecies symbiotic relations. The therapeutic landscape thus functions as a dynamic field, continuously driven by interactions among human and non-human actors (especially plants).

5.3. Research Limitations and Future Work

This study has several limitations that warrant attention in future research. First, the findings are derived from human–plant interactions within China’s tourism-oriented rural landscapes, particularly the case of Xixiang Rural Garden. The unique socio-ecological characteristics of these pastoral therapeutic environments may limit the direct transferability of the results to other cultural or geographical contexts. Nevertheless, the identified mechanisms hold value for understanding therapeutic landscape experiences in similar international rural tourism settings. Plant agency, cross-cultural dialogue, and multisensory engagement hold significant reference value for understanding the formation of therapeutic experiences in rural health tourism destinations with similar characteristics internationally (e.g., destinations that rely on distinctive plant landscapes, emphasize immersive visitor interactions, and aim to promote physical and mental restoration). The transferability of these findings is grounded in the shared core conditions of these destinations, such as “plant-mediated immersive experiences” and “the pursuit of multispecies relational building.” Second, the field data, which consisted of 49 samples collected between 2024 and 2025, lacks a longitudinal dimension. While these data provide insights into contemporary visitor experiences in the Xixiang Rural Garden, they do not allow for comparative analysis across different time periods. Future research should collect multi-cycle data to systematically track the evolution of emotional experiences among diverse visitor groups. Finally, this study is theoretically anchored in critical plant studies, focusing on plant–human interactions. May overlook other crucial dimensions, particularly the viewpoints of visitors and local farmers. Future research should integrate these perspectives to construct a comprehensive analytical framework for therapeutic landscape mechanisms, enhancing the reliability and validity of the findings.

Figure 8. Mechanism of relational agency in human–plant encounters and multispecies therapeutic practices.

Figure 8. Mechanism of relational agency in human–plant encounters and multispecies therapeutic practices.

6. Conclusions and Implications

As a vital practice for enhancing physical and mental well-being, therapeutic tourism has gained increasing popularity, with particular attention directed toward the development of tourism-oriented rural therapeutic landscapes. This study addresses a previously overlooked topic: how encounters and interactions between human and non-human actors (especially plants) shape the evolution of therapeutic landscape experiences. Focusing on the rural therapeutic landscape in the Xixiang Rural Garden, this paper constructs an analytical framework based on critical plant studies and uses data collected from field surveys conducted in 2024 and 2025 to trace the diachronic evolution of visitors’ therapeutic experiences. At the micro level, it examines how human interventions affect plant survival and, in turn, influence visitors’ therapeutic experiences. The main findings are as follows:

• Plant agency serves as a key mediator in enhancing therapeutic experiences. Through their visual and material qualities, rice plants and withered lotus stems draw visitors into the “plant world,” while their life cycles and ecological adaptability inspire respect and self-reflection. The Xixiang Rural Garden’s ecological zoning creates spaces for cross-cultural dialogue, where visitors perceive resilience and harmony through personified plant interactions. Local knowledge further encounters agricultural landscapes that awaken reverence for natural order. This integrated approach fosters human–plant coexistence, stabilizes interactions, and sustains therapeutic experiences while mitigating tourism’s ecological impacts.
• Multisensory interactions in the Xixiang Rural Garden deepen emotional bonds between humans and plants. Activities such as rice transplanting, harvesting, horseback riding along paddies, and listening to plant narratives engage sight, touch, and smell, nurturing a sense of rural belonging. In addition, rice landscapes and harvest scenes evoke visitors’ childhood memories, merging agricultural practice with plant-based therapeutic settings. This prompts reflection on the essence of life and elevates the overall therapeutic experience.
• A bidirectional mechanism—integrating plant agency, cross-cultural dialogue, and multisensory perception—underpins visitors’ therapeutic landscape experiences and spatial practices. For instance, visitors’ empathy toward the “pain” of rice plants and the “silent resistance” of withered lotus stems fosters greater humanistic concern for plants. Reducing human intervention and removing intrusive infrastructure helps reconstruct multispecies ecosystems, encouraging visitors and managers to re-evaluate human–plant relations and advancing the evolution of therapeutic experiences.

Based on these findings, this study proposes several policy recommendations to enhance visitors’ therapeutic experiences and promote the sustainable development of human-nature and human–plant relations. First, respect plant agency by adhering to natural laws and plant life cycles. Construct plant-led symbiotic scenarios and design adaptive interactive spaces that facilitate entry into the “plant world,” strengthening emotional bonds between humans and plants. Second, establish practical mechanisms for multispecies therapeutic spatial interaction. Grounded in plant agency, integrate Indigenous knowledge, cross-cultural dialogue, and multisensory perception to develop locally adapted, sustainable models of rural therapeutic tourism. Third, design multisensory therapeutic activities to deepen emotional connections. Intentionally incorporate visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile elements, such as seasonal harvesting experiences, soundscape meditation, and tactile plant workshops, to systematically enhance sensory engagement and reinforce therapeutic outcomes. Last but not least, promote community-led management for sustainable development. Actively involve local residents in the planning, operation, and benefit-sharing of therapeutic landscape initiatives through cooperatives, guide training, and traditional knowledge preservation. Such community ownership helps sustain both ecological resources and local well-being.