EntreComp Framework: A Bibliometric Review and Research Trends

Abstract

The European Entrepreneurship Competence (EntreComp) framework has been proposed by the European Commission in order to build consensus around a common understanding of entrepreneurship competence (knowledge, skills, and attitude). This study reports a bibliometric review of the research to date, addressing the EntreComp framework, based on documents published during the period from 2016 to June 2022. The research dataset was collected from Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) and included 37 articles. The bibliometric analysis includes citation, cooccurence and network analysis to represent the between countries and interorganizational collaboration, to identify relationships between documents topics. Along with the bibliometric analysis, a detailed description of characteristics for each article (study design and objectives, instruments, research findings, etc.) was also presented. Overall, this study provides insights regarding research addressing EntreComp framework, that could guide future research directions of practitioners/policy makers/researchers/etc. in the entrepreneurial competencies field and other interconnected domains.

1. Introduction

The European Entrepreneurship Competence (EntreComp) Framework was developed by the Joint Research Center (JRC) and published in 2016 as part of the "New Skills Agenda For Europe: Working Together to Strengthen Human Capital Employability and Competitiveness", which has been proposed by the European Commission.

The framework aims to build consensus around a common understanding of entrepreneurship competence—knowledge, skills and attitude needed for people to develop an entrepreneurial mindset and culture for individuals and societal benefits [1,2].

The framework is very flexible, and it can be used or adopted in different contexts: curricula reform (adopt, design) in formal/non-formal education, practical entrepreneurial experience design, self-assessment tools of entrepreneurial proficiency measurement and monitoring, links identification with different skills, strength of team identification, and skills validation acquired from a learning experience [2,3].

The EntreComp offers an overview of interconnected and interrelated competencies that makes someone entrepreneurial (Ref. [4]) The EntreComp Framework include three competency areas: ideas and opportunities, resources, into action. Each of these areas has five competencies, detailed in Figure 1. The 15 entrepreneurial competencies are described by hints and further split in three up to six threads (60 threads in total) (see Figure 2). Each thread is explained and detailed on the eighth level of progression (from beginner to expert), resulting in 442 learning outcomes—Foundation: Level 1 (Discover), Level 2 (Explore); Intermediate: Level 3 (Experiment), Level 4 (Dare); Advanced: Level 5 (Improve), Level 6 (Reinforce); Expert: Level 7 (Expand), Level 8 (Transform) (see, for example, Figure 3).

Figure 1. EntreComp Framework of 15 entrepreneurial competencies and its extension with threads, progression levels, learning outcomes [4].

Figure 2. Detailed presentation of competencies, hints, and threads for the competencies areas: ideas and opportunities (blue), resources (orange), into action (green). Each figure is composed of the following (from inside of the circle to the outside of it): competency area (in the middle), five competencies, five hints corresponding to each competency, and the corresponding threads (two to six). The figure was created by authors and include information from [4].

Figure 3. Examples of the 8th levels of progression of threads: Thread Identify, create and seize opportunities from competency Spotting opportunities of competency area Ideas and Opportunities (blue); Thread Be determined from competency Motivation and perseverance of competency area Resources (orange); Thread Take responsibility from competency Taking the initiative of competency area Into Action (green). The Figure was created by authors and include information from [4].

A a series of resources have been presented for the development of entrepreneurial skills and are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. EntreComp Framework guidelines.

Resource Name	Resource Description
EntreComp into Action [2,5]	It is a user guide aiming to inform, promote, and inspire the development of entrepreneurial learning by presenting a broad range of examples in which EntreComp was used in different contexts. The examples are organized in domains of work, like formal education and training, nonformal learning and inclusion, and employment and enterprise. This user guide includes 23 case studies of examples related to the results using EntreComp in different organizations, and 10 tools applying EntreComp and achieving entrepreneurship competencies aligned with EntreComp.
EntreComp at work [2,6]	It is used to present insights of the EntreComp into employability (real life) and it was developed to complement the EntreComp into action guide, to address entrepreneurial skills in the labour market activities. EntreComp could be used in a variety of ways, such as the design of training, support for start-ups, design of personal development plans, workforce development, and examples are presented in 10 case studies that involved 25 organizations.
EntreComp Playbook [2,7]	It is a collection of tools, practices and examples of how EntreComp should be activated in the workplace. The playbook targets the learning facilitators (private, public, and similar sectors) and is applied in developing the entrepreneurial competencies for adults facing the needs of the labour market, career progression, supporting actors of change, and business start-ups. It also provides readers with the ability to experiment and create their own paths to entrepreneurial teaching and (nonformal) learning.
Inspiring Practices from across Europe [2,8]	It helps in collecting practices that are and have been implemented by practitioners, like educators and organizations, from all of Europe, to increase the awareness of how the EntreComp can be used to inspire people involved in entrepreneurial learning.

The aim of this study is to assess scientific publications and research patterns and trends regarding the EntreComp framework. The most productive countries, organizations, sources, authorship and collaboration patterns, highly cited research papers, emerging research topics, and most frequently used keywords/terms related to the research field were identified. Characteristics of each article are also presented. A deeper exploration of research publications regarding EntreComp framework could offer a better understanding of the research field, be used as reference points for settings/strategies of future (international collaboration) research, and be useful in planing and polices of higher education institutions (HEIs), researchers, or research groups.

2. Materials and Methods

A literature search on the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) online databases by using the search keyword EntreComp, was performed in June 2022 to identify scientific contributions on EntreComp. There were no restrictions regarding the study period, document type, or language. Retrieved articles were from period 2016–2022, and for each of them retrieved data contained the following information: title, abstract, years of publication, authors, authors’ affiliations, sources, and citations. The bibliometric analysis was performed by using VOSviewer software (VanEck and Waltman, Center for Science and Technology Studies of Leiden University [9,10]), a tool that has been used in studies from various areas of research [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. The countries of origin and documents’ citation network are used to represent the between-countries and interorganizational collaboration, and keyword cooccurrence analysis was used to identify relationships between document topics. In the network visualization map, the link and the distance between two countries/publications/terms demonstrated the relationship strength (the smaller the distance, the most strongly related to each other). Countries/documents/terms are grouped in clusters of closely related items, the color of the bubble indicating the cluster in which the countries/documents/terms belonged to.

The study also presents a detailed description of the characteristics for each research article. We summarized the information related to the study design, proposed and achieved study objectives, sample size, country/region/organization, instruments/tools, and research findings.

3. Results

Over the seven-year period (2016, 1 (2.70%), 2017, 2 (5.41%), 2018, 2 (5.41%), 2019, 5 (13.51%), 2020, 14 (37.84%), 2021, 9 (24.32%), and 2022, 4 (10.81%)), the total number of publications in the research field was 37 (from 71 organizations and 31 countries). There were 20 articles and 17 proceedings papers from the following WoS categories: education educational research/education scientific disciplines (14, 37.83%, 4, 10.81%), business/management/economics (12, 32.43%, 7, 18.92%, 4, 10.81%), engineering multidisciplinary (4, 10.81%), green sustainable science technology (4, 10.81%), environmental sciences/environmental studies (3, 8.11%). The most productive countries were Spain (11 publications), Finland (6), Belgium (5), Italy (4), and Romania (3), and the hierarchy in terms of citations was as follows: Spain (30 citations), China (16), Italy (8), Estonia (8), Finland (7), Belgium (7), and Poland (7) (Figure 4 and Figure 5).

Figure 4. VOSviewer network visualization map of countries (type of analysis: citations, weighted documents. Minimum number of documents of a country, 1 item; largest set of connected items, 15 items).

Figure 5. VOSviewer network countries’ connection map related to their citations.

All the contributing countries are represented in the Figure 4, and those between which there were citations/connections are represented in more detail in Figure 5.

The articles with five or more citations were by Armuna et al. (2020, International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, impact factor (IF) 6.15) [22] with 16 citations, Lillevali et al. (2017, Education Research International) [23] with 16 citations, Floris et al. (2019, International Journal of Educational Management) [24] with five citations, Bhatti et al. (2021, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development) [25] with five citations, Rayna et al. (2021, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, IF 10.88) [26] with five citations, and Palos Sanchez et al. (2019, Interciencia, IF 0.39) [27] with five citations (Figure 6).

Figure 6. VOSviewer network visualization map of documents (type of analysis: citation, weighted citations, and largest set of connected items, 13 documents). Each document is represented in the network by the name of the first author and the publication year. A citation link/connection between two documents is established if one document includes a cited reference that represents the other document. The dimension of the bubble represents the number of citations of the document—the higher the citations of a document, the larger the bubble of that document. Clusters (represented by bubbles of the same color) are formed by a set of documents citing each other and sharing similar ideas).

The network visualization of keywords on the publications was used to map topical directions in the field of EntreComp research. A total number of 193 keywords were identified from the research articles. The most frequently used keywords were entrepreneurship (13), entrepreneurship education (10), EntreComp/entrepreneurial/entrepreneurship competencie(s) (9/9), education/higher education/primary education (8/6/2), self-efficacy (5), innovation (4), enterprise/business/business dynamics (4/3/2), and gender/gender differences (3/2) (Figure 7). It can be seen that the researchers covered topics focusing on EntreComp competencies and entrepreneurship education (primary and higher) and/or enterprise/business dynamics/business takeover/business transfer. Moreover, within the figure there are clusters of keywords that are related to gender/gender differences, entrepreneurial intention, self-efficacy, attitudes, cognitive abilities, collaboration, and performance and innovation.

Figure 7. VOSviewer network visualization map of keywords (type of analysis: cooccurrence, weighted occurrences, and a total of 193 keywords).

After the bibliometric review, a detailed description of the characteristics for each research article is presented. We summarized the information related to the study design, proposed and achieved study objectives, sample size, country/region/organisation, instruments/tools and research findings. The studies considered were grouped into two categories: studies that address EntreComp topics and use EntreComp framework with items and theoretical orientation (Table 2), and studies that address EntreComp topics and use the EntreComp framework items and practical orientation (Table 3).

Table 2. Studies that address EntreComp topics and use EntreComp Framework with items and theoretical orientation.

Study Title and Reference	Study Design and Objectives/Sample Size/Country or Region/Organizations/Instruments	Research Findings/Recommendation/ Future Work
Entrepreneurial Competencies in the Training of Future Technicians in Economic Activities. [28] Entrepreneurial Competencies in Training Future Romanian Farmers. [29]	Study Aim: To describe the professional training standard for technicians in agricultural specialization (PTS-TAS) and to compare it with the EntreComp framework by using document analysis and comparative analysis.	Research Findings: –Out of the 15 competencies of EntreComp, five have two or more threads covered, five have only one thread covered, and the other five are not covered at all by the PTS-TAS. –PTS-TAS covers only 10 out of 15 entrepreneurial competencies (the five uncovered competencies were vision, valuing ideas, self-awareness and self-efficacy, motivation and perseverance, and learning through experience).
EU Policies Driving Entrepreneurial Competencies—Reflections from the Case of EntreComp. [30]	Study Aim: To explore how European policies/actors can drive development of entrepreneurial competencies by examining the case of the EntreComp and its integration into education and training development in different countries. The study extends the framework of Shulman and Shulman [31], Seikkula–Leino [32], Seikkula–Leino et al. [33,34,35] (consisting of four modules: vision, motivation, practice, and understanding) with integration of the EntreComp framework’s goals. Participants: 348 respondents (workers in the field of higher education (155), adult education/adult inclusion (114), vocational education and training (112), nonformal youth education (105), start-up or business growth support (104), human resources (15), unspecified fields (35)) from 47 countries. Instrument: an online survey shared across EntreComp360 project’s partner communication channels. Countries: Comparison between UK, Finland, Spain, Germany, Italy, and Iceland.	Research Findings: –EntreComp has been widely recognized as a critical driver of competence in entrepreneurial education. Almost half of the respondents were familiar with EntreComp, 49.1%; Italy, 76.7%; UK, 67.3%; Spain, 63.9%; Finland, 43.2%; Germany, 22.9%; Iceland, 7.4%). –For Germany and Iceland the respondents answered that their work links partially to some or all of the competencies highlighted in EntreComp. –The UK, Italy, Spain, and Finland are the countries that use the most EntreComp on their work on developing entrepreneurial competencies. –Almost 1/3 of the respondents would require more support to be able to better demonstrate the value added of entrepreneurship education). –The future vision developed by using EntreComp includes the applications of the framework from different areas of life, recognition of the entrepreneurial skills for each participant, and the possibility of sharing good practices, consulting, and networking.
Promoting the Entrepreneurship Competence of Young Adults in Europe: Towards a Self-Assessment Tool. [36]	Study Aim: To develop a self-assessment tool (SAT) for entrepreneurship competence based on the EntreComp model. Objectives: To analyze 12 SAT tools: EIT Climate KIC Entrepreneur Profiler, Empower Yourself/Valorise Toi, Enterprise Catalyst, Entrepreneurial Skills Pass (ESP), Get2, Go Forth Self-Assessment for Entrepreneurs, Grit Scale, Loop Me, Measurement Tool for Enterprise Education (MTEE), OctoSkills, TOP360, and Youthpass. Participants: 16–25-year-old adults.	Research Findings: Each tool has been analyzed from different points of view: target audience, purposes of the SAT, question content themes and question type used. For each of the 12 tools considered: –Overviews of the user outcomes were presented, –It has been analyzed how they address the 15 EntreComp competencies.
Mapping Literature Review on the Role of Consciousness in Entrepreneurship Development. [37]	Study Aim: To provide a literature review on the development of the entrepreneurship competencies and to examine patterns and main concepts in consciousness development in relation to entrepreneurship competencies or education. A representative number of scientific articles related to entrepreneurship and consciousness development, in multiple domains (neuroscience, cognitive, social, information, and natural sciences and psychology), were assessed.	Research Findings: It points out –the prevalence of theoretical, monodisciplinary research, and the lack of empirical evidence; and –the state of the academic research territory
EntreCompEdu, a Professional Development Framework for Entrepreneurial Education. [38]	Study Aim: To present EntreCompEdu (a professional development framework) in order to identify the competencies that educators need to promote entrepreneurial education in a primary, secondary, and vocational context. Instruments: A new model based on pedagogical principles. Participants: an advisory group of European and national policymakers, university staff, teachers, and education consultants.	Research Findings: To explore the relationships between different frameworks in order to articulate its rationale and value. A new model has been proposed and analyzed, a model based on the pedagogical principles that was translated into five areas of competence: entrepreneurial knowledge and understanding, planning and organization, teaching and training, assessment, and professional learning.
EntreCompOnto: An Ontology for Semantic Representation of Entrepreneurship Competences. [39]	Study Aim: To propose a comprehensive ontology based on the EntreComp framework. Instruments: EntreCompOnto (EntreComp Ontology). The ontology can –be used to interoperate entrepreneurship courses or programs, to enable the convergence and interoperability of entrepreneurship competencies with other disciplines; –offer educational technologists and researchers a better understanding of curricula and how it could be applied in improving learning and teaching; –act as a knowledge-management tool and a potential encyclopedic reference tool for the ones that are interested in entrepreneurship; and –help the stakeholders to understand the objects and their relationship in the entrepreneurship learning and teaching context.	The ontology is based on the EntreComp framework and includes: –the definition of a body of knowledge, –competence areas, –competencies, –units of knowledge, –learning outcomes, –threads, –levels of progression, and –the level of proficiency for the process of describing and integrating curricula related to entrepreneurship as a competency. The ontology provides sets of machine-readable statements, and it also contains links, descriptions and classification of terms as well as the explicitly defined relationships between them.
A System Dynamics Approach to Entrepreneurship Applied to the Case of the Creative Arts Industry. [40]	Study Aim: To propose a new approach for innovative entrepreneurial thinking (by integrating a number system thinking and system dynamics tools), and to apply it in the case of the creative arts industry (to demonstrate how from a static picture, provided by the traditional tool business model canvas (BMC), can be obtained a dynamic model with causal feedback loops among the main elements of the business environment). Instruments: The traditional tool (BMC supported by EntreComp) was developed with the help of the innovative thinking competencies for creative arts entrepreneurship (a European project cofunded by the Erasmus + programme).	Research Findings: The system dynamic model would significantly support spotting opportunities, enhancing creativity, and valuing ideas in order to promote innovation, and differentiation. New business strategies have been formulated and explored to their future effectiveness. The proposed approach proved to be useful for finding ways to accelerate the diffusion of innovation by configuring important variables (e.g., advertising, promotion expenditure, and investing on building a brand name via good reputation).
Validating Curricular Competencies in Innovation and Entrepreneurship for Biomedical Research Trainees: A Modified Delphi Approach. [41]	Study Aim: To validate the appropriateness of EntreComp competencies for innovation and entrepreneurship (I&E) training for biomedical researchers and to identify program content by using Delphi panels ([42,43,44]). Instruments: The Delphi panel domain areas (management, vision and imagination, social skills, psychological skills, ethical and decision-making skills) and EntreComp competencies. Participants: 45 experts from USA (from academia 25, venture capital 11, industry 9).	Research Findings: After a two-round Delphi process, the experts did the following: –identified 120 out of 207 topics for the training curriculum; –reached a consensus (high importance for the curriculum) for 85 (71%) topics; –identified four topics by multiple panels for both student groups: resiliency, goal setting, team management, and communication skills. All 15 EntreComp competencies proved to be important for biomedical research trainees and no additional competencies are needed. I&E training for biomedical trainees should address all 15 EntreComp competencies, including soft skills, and be flexible to accommodate the needs of trainees on different career trajectories.
A Critical Evaluation of Contemporary Tools on Developing Innovative Thinking Competencies for Entrepreneurship. [45]	Study Aim: To propose a tool for supporting and enhancing entrepreneurial activity, by exploring the present and future interrelationships between the most important business entities and their direct and indirect effects on business performance. Instruments: An approach based on developing innovative thinking competencies for creative arts entrepreneurship; a European project cofunded by the Erasmus + programme.	Research Findings: The dynamic approach: –is proposed in the idea of supporting entrepreneurs in building a realistic vision of their business. –It contains several tools originating from systems theory (rich pictures, concept maps, systems maps, influence diagrams and causal loop models), tools that provide the opportunity for contemporary, widely applied techniques to be enriched and supported by a dynamic and holistic analysis of the business environment.
Competency Models as a Tool for Conceptualizing the Systematic Process of Entrepreneurship Competence Development. [23]	Study Aim: To understand how systematic entrepreneurship competence development throughout the education levels is conceptualized in different entrepreneurship education (EE) competence models (Nordic, Danish, UK, USA, EU).	A comparative analysis was performed to compare the aims, definitions and the approaches taken for constructing the five competency models. Research Findings: Three different ways, in which the analyzed competence models have described their systematic development of entrepreneurial competencies, were identified: –specific education levels and types (Nordic, Danish, and UK models); –job-related and business-related competence levels (USA model); –nonlinear proficiency levels (EU model). In total, 19 common entrepreneurial competencies, described in all five models, were identified (responsibility, creativity, opportunity recognition, exploitation, teamwork, and management skills).

Table 3. Studies that address EntreComp topics and use EntreComp framework items, practical orientation.

Study Title and Reference	Study Design and Objectives/Sample Size/Country or Region/Organizations/Instruments	Research Findings/Recommendation/ Future Work
EntreComp Questionnaire: A Self-Assessment Tool for Entrepreneurship Competencies. [2]	Study Aim: To assess the validity and reliability of the self-perceptions of the entrepreneurship competencies questionnaire proposed by Armuña [22] Participants: 742 college students (17–64 years, 65.4% females) from different universities of Spain and Chile with different areas of knowledge. Instruments: EntreComp (22 items), entrepreneurial intention (6 items), entrepreneurial self-capital scales (28 items).	The proposed questionaire showed: –a four-dimensional model (ideas and opportunities, personal resources, specific knowledge, into action) corresponds to the ideas of the EntreComp model; –a psychometric validation, good reliability and validity, high positive correlations with entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial self-capital scales. Recommendation: to replicate the study with samples from other populations (entrepreneurs, workers), comparative studies of groups by demographic variables (sex, age), educational levels, countries.
Using the EntreComp Framework to Evaluate Two Entrepreneurship Education Courses Based on the Korda Method. [46]	Study Aim: To describe how the EntreComp framework was used to evaluate the Korda method [47,48] by using a comparative study case. Participants: secondary and tertiary level students. Research questions refers: 1. to what extent the EntreComp framework can be used to evaluate entrepreneurship courses, 2. to what extent the Korda Method is suitable for Entrepreneurship Education (EE) as a student-centered pedagogy. Instrument: the questionnaire was based on the 15 competencies listed in EntreComp and included open-ended questions to inspect the context/situations in which the competency had been developed.	For the two courses considered and evaluated through the EntreComp framework, the results were the following: 1. several opportunities and challenges in the use of the EntreComp framework were identified; 2. the application of the Korda method actually developed the competencies and the areas connected to the entrepreneurship competence.
Entrepreneurship Competence in Pre-Service Teachers Training Degrees at Spanish Jesuit Universities: A Content Analysis Based on EntreComp and EntreCompEdu. [49]	Study Aim: –to compare the competence areas proposed by the EntreComp and EntreCompEdu within the framework of the European Union’s Erasmus + program; –to analyze the incorporation of entrepreneurship competence (EC) in the formulation of the competencies (basic, general, transversal and specific competencies) of the primary education degrees offered by Spanish Jesuit universities. Sample Size and Organizations: 631 competencies have been analyzed (25 basic, 52 general, 6 transversal, 448 specific) for 65 universities; a detailed analysis has been performed for the institution in which various Jesuit centers were integrated.	Research Findings: –Competency areas of both frameworks are included in 30% of the Registry of Universities, Centres and Degrees of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (RUCT) competencies (191 out of the 631 competencies) proposed by the five Spanish Jesuit universities; –the competence mobilizing others, planning and management, working with others (EntreComp), creating an empowering entrepreneurial learning environment (EntreCompEdu) are the most frequently recognized among the RUCT competencies; –none of the analyzed universities incorporate the competencies: motivation and perseverance, financial and economic literacy, coping with uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk (EntreComp), checking and reporting progress, sharing feedback, recognising progress and achievement (EntreCompEdu).
Testing the EntreComp Framework and Its Relation to Start Up Behaviour in Seven European Countries. [50]	Study Aim: To propose and test a scale to measure entrepreneurship competence (EC) based on the EntreComp framework and examines its relation to start-up behaviour by using data from seven European countries. Study Directions: EC dimensions, comparison among higher education students and secondary level students, among men and women, individuals with and those with no role models, individuals with prior start up and those with no experience, nascent entrepreneurs, and other students. Instruments: a web-based survey with 15 variables (based on the EntreComp framework, with three areas), data gathered during an Erasmus + project sustainability-driven entrepreneurship in 2019. Sample Size and Organizations: 1128 answers from both secondary and higher education level students (16–58 years old, 56% male) from seven European countries (Finland, 646; Belgium, 192; Spain, 110; Italy, 50; Germany, 46; United Kingdom, 45; The Netherlands, 39).	Research Findings: EC has a unidimensional structure. There was no statistically significant difference in EC between secondary level and higher education students, or between men and women. Higher levels of EC are associated with individuals with entrepreneurial role models, prior experience of entrepreneurship, and nascent entrepreneurship. EC is strongly linked with entrepreneurial behavior and has predictive power over start-up behavior.
Articulating Entrepreneurial Competencies in the Undergraduate Curricular. [51]	Study Objectives: 1. To ascertain the level of articulation of enterprise language within programme level documentation; 2. To investigate the extent to which curricula are underpinned by enterprise competencies and the usefulness of the EntreComp framework for embeddings enterprise within the curricula. Instruments and Organisations: –qualitative desk analysis of undergraduate programmes’ documentation across one UK University (60 undergraduate programmes were analyzed from 240 available); –face-to-face interviews with program leaders (25).	Research Findings: 1. More than 70% of the programmes analyzed have no mention of enterprise in their documentation; 2. None of the participants had heard or used the EntreComp before being involved in this study. All 25 respondents agreed that the EntreComp could be useful as a base for curriculum development and a possible way to engage more staff from their programme teams. EntreComp could be useful to build an entirely programmatic approach to embedding enterprise.
Analysis of Educational competencies to Evaluate Entrepreneurial People. [27]	Study Aim: To utilize an entrepreneurial self-diagnosis instrument, proposed by the Regional Government of Extremadura, Spain, to evaluate the potential entrepreneurs. Objectives: To identify the employers skills, qualities, competencies and behaviors possessed by the respondents and the ones from the literature. Instruments: A questionnaire based on EntreComp with 49 items; from January 2018 to February 2019. Participants: 1547 respondents.	Research Findings: The results: –can help implement public policies in Latin American countries, committed to sustainability in business creation and self-employment; and –can guide and support the entrepreneurs. Factorial analysis was performed to identify latent components from the 49 items of EntreComp.
Data Mining in Entrepreneurial Competencies Diagnosis. [52]	Study Aim: To assess the level of EC of students using the rule induction method in data analysis, and to identify the differences in competencies regarding gender, material status, and professional situation of respondents. Instruments: A questionnaire based on EntreComp and authors’ research, including three areas—ideas and opportunities (18 competencies), resources (21 competencies), and into action (21 competencies)—from May 2019 to February 2020. Participants: 290 respondents (75% students from Pedagogical University of Cracow and 25% students from Rzeszow University; 88% women; 61% first degree; 38% second degree; and 1% Master’s students).	Research Findings: The respondents assessed their competencies as: –area ideas and opportunities: 70% at most at an intermediate level; –area Resources: 80% at the most intermediate level; –area into action: 75% of respondents had a level no higher than intermediate. The rule based analysis revealed that: –the women competencies’ profile was different than the one of men; –good financial status has a positive impact on the self-assessment of competencies and worse-cause difficulties in assessing business ideas; –unemployed students need stimulation to take action, seek funding, share ideas, and protect them; –students running their businesses are able to identify market needs.
From Stand-Up to Start-Up: Exploring Entrepreneurship Competencies and STEM Women’s Intention. [22]	Study Aim: To observe the relationship between the EC and entrepreneurship intention (EI) of a sample of potential STEM entrepreneurs in the idea of assessing the conventional assumption on women exhibiting lower rates of EI than men and that the lack of competence perceived is a higher barrier to be an entrepreneur for them. Hypothesis tested: 1. Female EC perception is lower than men. 2. There is a positive relationship between competencies and EI. 3. Gender moderates the positive relationship between competencies and EI so that the relationship is stronger for female STEM students compared to male STEM students. Instruments: A questionnaire-based survey, a model to study the relationship between competencies and skill factors in EI. Participants: 1400 applicants (80% men, 20% women).	Research Findings: –Women have fewer EI than men, and consequently slight differences on the self-perceived competencies are obtained by gender; –a positive relationship between competencies and EI can be established, but the gender is not a moderating factor; –female participants feel less competent due to: the recognition of the potential value of an idea, the digital and financial know-how; –female participants rate the team working skills higher than male participants; –all the individuals are interested in becoming entrepreneurs and consider the EI between female and male profiles being not significantly different in this STEM case.
Education for Entrepreneurship in Secondary Education: Teachers’ Opinions about the Current State and Future Possibilities in European Contexts. [53]	Study Aim: To present the capacities linked to the development of the EC, starting with the EntreComp. Instruments: A questionnaire. Participants and Region: 272 Secondary Education teachers from Greece, Spain, Italy, and Belgium.	Research Findings: Motivation, learning from experience and teamwork proved to be the most important competencies for teachers. Teachers suggested more time in class and more training to include education for entrepreneurship in their teaching practice (e.g., models and practical references that could help to define the teaching action). The digital technologies should be included to favouring entrepreneurship in the classroom.
Analysis of Entrepreneurial Educators for Boosting the Entrepreneurial Potential in Europe. [54]	Study Aim: To investigate the needs and requirements among the teachers and educators, the skills that teachers can use to facilitate entrepreneurial learning in the classroom, supporting by extensive user testing with learners, teachers, leaders, community and business. Instruments: A questionnaire to: –investigate the level of development of each of the EC (15 from EntreComp) among the respondents’ students and learners during their lessons and teaching in classrooms; –evaluate the importance of a number of preselected factors (18 factors) for continuing professional development and in-service training. Participants: 459 respondents (79 primary teachers, 247 secondary school teachers, 79 teachers in secondary vocational schools, four in higher education, 16 employed in educational institutions, 34 other) from October 2018 to April 2019. Countries: Spain, Republic of North Macedonia, Belgium, and the UK.	Research Findings: The factor "Giving practical ideas to use in classroom" is ranked the most important in all investigated datasets, in all countries (UK—the most important option), by all respondents roles (teacher—primary, secondary; VET) and also in the overall dataset (materials, modules for training and online and offline tools). The other two important factors are "Level of experience of trainer" and "Working with other teachers to develop my ideas through the course". The most selected competencies were: creativity, motivation and perseverance, learning through experience. The less selected competencies were: mobilising others, mobilising resources, valuing ideas, and financial and economic literacy.
EntreCom4ALL MODEL to Sustain the Entrepreneurship Competence Needs. [55]	Study Aim: To present the EntreCom4ALL model which has been developed under an European project that aims to improve the accessibility of entrepreneurial education in young or female entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial teachers or trainers (target groups aligned with the sustainability development goals (SDG) of UNESCO). EntreCom4ALL model includes skill assessment framework (adapted from the EntreComp framework, with two statements per competence—30 statements in total).	The model was implemented under an online platform that provides access to relevant open educational resources (OER) on entrepreneurship. The skill assessment framework was used to give the users of the platform the opportunity to assess their entrepreneurial strengths and weaknesses. Research Findings: The only part of EntreComp that is not integrated in EntreCom4ALL model is the eight-level progression model. The study also describes how some other targets from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development can be addressed and accounted for by using the Entrecom4All Platform (i.e., for SDG4, 10 targets are distinguished that cover the needs of different levels of education, from primary and secondary to HEI through VET).
Why Students’ Self-Regulation is Key Towards the New Normality? [56]	Study Aim: To present results, in the context of COVID-19 pandemic, related to the onsite education paradigm that was applied. Instruments: Online activities. Participants: 620 university students.	Research Findings: –Students spent more time on activities with tighter deadlines and more strict instructions. –Students were affected by the lack of a personal computer or an adequate workspace.
The Relevance of Soft Skills for Entrepreneurs. [57]	Study Aim: To explore the relevance of the 38 soft skills for entrepreneurs, skills from the EntreComp, focusing on the impact of the experience as an entrepreneur and the sectors of activity on the perceived relative importance of these skills. Hypothesis related to soft skill: 1. There are significant differences in the perception of the importance of soft skills between Portugal and Serbia; 2. There are some common discriminating elements in the perception of the importance of soft skills among entrepreneurs, regardless of the cultural background they come from (Portugal or Serbia). Instruments: Online questionnaire-based survey, applied from November 2019 to February 2020. Participants: 153 entrepreneurs from Portugal and Serbia, 78% male.	Research Findings: Notable differences were revealed in the perception of the importance of a majority of soft skills (27 out of 38 skills), indicating that an entrepreneur’s geographic area is a relevant factor in the perception of the relative importance of soft skills. The analysis performed took into account the following variables: –develop emotional intelligence, be resilient and do not give up; –reflect, imagine the future and work independently. The largest dispersion of responses was for the “work independently” variable, followed by the “inspire and get inspired” and “persuade” variables. There have been significant differences in the importance given to various variables (e.g., expand your network, accept diversity, work independently, analyze the context, among others).
Understanding Business Takeover Intentions—The Role of Theory of Planned Behavior and Entrepreneurship Competence. [58]	Study Aim: To verify the utility of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) in the context of business takeover intentions (BTI) and to explore the impact of EC on antecedents of takeover intentions (among young people). Objectives: To examine: 1. the validity of the TPB in explaining business takeover intentions; 2. the mediating effect of attitudes and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on the relationship between EC and BTI; and 3. the effect of gender and parental entrepreneurship on BTI. Instruments: A web survey based on EntreComp. Participants: 1373 data from two universities of applied sciences from Finland (Seinäjoki and Tampere), first-year students (501 answers from 2019 and 872 answers from 2020; age 18–58, 51% men.	Research Findings: –37% of the students had a mother or father working as an entrepreneur; –10% of the students came from a family in which both parents worked as an entrepreneur; –parental role models influence the development of attitudes, PBC, EC; –a mother or father’s entrepreneurship (parental role model) predicts BTI more than any other variable; –subjective norm, attitudes to entrepreneurship, PBC are significantly explained BTI; –EC, mediated by attitudes and PBC, has a strong effect on BTI; –men have higher BTI than their female counterparts.
Developing a Digital Competence Assessment and Accreditaation Platform for Digital Profiles. [59]	Study Aim: To understand that digital competencies are needed by anyone who works remotely or is an entrepreneur in his/her activity field. Objective: To get an online platform for the users to assess their digital competencies and to consult their digital profile and the progress in their accreditation pathways. Instruments: Two online surveys; An Erasmus+ 2016 project using DigComp and EntreComp. Participants: 67 people at the Mobile Office Worker survey; 84 people at the Entrepreneur survey 2018.	Research Findings: The Project used the DigComp as a reference to define, assess, and accredit digital profiles for entrepreneurs and virtual office workers, and the EntreComp for the entrepreneur profile. The project team has designed the accreditation pathways for DigComp and EntreComp profiles based on Open Badges. The DigComp framework contributed to well-defined criteria, to facilitate acknowledgements in the hiring process. The organizations from different countries into P4E consortium have been effective in creating and developing the competence profiles and the P4E online e-assessment platform.
Fostering Skills for the 21st Century: The Role of Fab Labs and Makerspaces. [26]	Study Aim: To investigate the role that the large-scale fab lab and makerspace network (Centre for Maker Innovation & Technology—CMIT network) can play in fostering 21st-century skills. Instruments and Participants: –semi-structured interviews of 13 CMIT founders located across Russia (based on informal discussions during visits to CMIT centres and a CMIT meeting) –a focus group (with nine fab labs/makerspace managers and a policymaker). Study period from 2013 to 2016. The interview’s design was based on digital skills (DigComp) and EntreComp.	Research Findings: provided a mapping between key entrepreneurial skills and activities (courses, Master’s classes, projects, competitions and hackathons, collaborative projects with universities) typically carried out at fab labs and makerspaces. Some CMITs set up and deploy programmes and activities specifically aiming to develop entrepreneurial skills. CMITs do not engage explicitly in such entrepreneurship programmes due to lack of skills, knowledge, resources, access to networks, enabling one to do so. CMITs provide courses and classes to teach business skills, or put an emphasis on commercialisation in the projects run at the CMIT. The entrepreneurial skills naturally provided by fab labs and makerspaces are action skills, skills related to resources, and skills related to ideas and opportunities (from EntreComp). Through their activities, fab lab and makerspaces help develop skills related to information and data literacy, digital content creation, problem solving, and partially skills like collaborating through digital technologies and protecting health and well-being (from DigComp).
Improving Entrepreneurship Education in Primary Schools: A Pioneer Project. [24]	Study Aim: To propose stakeholder involvement as key to coproducing entrepreneurship education in primary schools, implying that policymakers should identify resources for projects and other similar initiatives. Objectives: 1. To discover and develop personal qualities, skills, interests and desires; 2. To learn to work in teams, appreciate member diversity and express social skills; 3. To create problem-solving mechanisms through creativity and imagination. Instruments, Participants, and Region: Face-to-face and semistructured interviews with the representatives of the main category of stakeholders: families (22 parents), schools and universities (academicians, teachers, member of the school council); the parents were of 22 learners (7–8 years) involved in a pioneering extracurricular ongoing project, from February 2018 to May 2018, in a small Italian city.	Research Findings: The majority of the children reached medium or advanced skills and the teachers claimed that the following features were evident in the learners during and after the proposed activities: creative skills, perseverance, ability in teamwork, awareness about future work opportunities. The results obtained for each of the objectives of the project were: 1. children were helped to focus on their skills and attributes and to investigate their own potential and ability in the class group; 2. to stimulate reflections on the importance of collaboration and enhancement of the diversity of all the proposed activities; and 3. to develop critical spirit and creative skills to identify the problems and solutions of them.
How Challenge Based Learning Enables Entrepreneurship. [60]	Study Aim: To analyse and better understand how the improvements and innovations in the activities (in the first year) where the challenge-based education is applied, are fostering the creation of startups (during the second year). Instruments: A survey applied to the participants in the last three editions, to analyse their perspective with a self-evaluation of their progression by using the EntreComp. Participants: Three European universities: Barcelona (Spain), Antwerp (Belgium), and Amsterdam (The Netherlands); students, teachers, ecosystems, challenges from companies and cities.	Research Findings: The results/insights of the EntreComp refers to: –opportunities and execution are more important than ideas; –the resource that comes first is self-leadership; –getting into action for creating startups needs a team. The study offers insights on how entrepreneurship is a natural consequence of challenge-based learning.
Entrepreneurship in Hungarian High Schools and Its Positive Impact on Problem-Solving. [61]	Study Aim: To improve the entrepreneurial background for the high school teachers by focusing on measuring the impact of entrepreneurship education on problem-solving abilities. Instruments: The True Entrepreneurs Program (TEP) from Hungary, performed in English. Participants: Three Hungarian high schools (individual students and student groups).	Research Findings: TEP has been launched to facilitate the collaboration and the competition among high schools and to create a digital platform that empowers local high school teachers to teach entrepreneurship based on understandable methods developed by their peers. The program exposed the students to visit business professionals, arrange company visits, and utilize real use cases, establishing a strong correlation between participation in high school entrepreneurship and the development of problem-solving skills. The students that have been experienced entrepreneurs brought a benefit to the universities, but also can become entrepreneurs and have a wide variety of careers paths available in almost every industry. The academic institutions should properly support entrepreneurship as a core discipline in all high schools to better prepare students for the jobs of tomorrow.
Entrepreneurial Intentions Among Women: Does Entrepreneurial Training and Education Matters? (Pre- and Post-Evaluation of Psychological Attributes and Its Effects on Entrepreneurial Intention). [25]	Study Aim: To evaluate the difference among psychological attributes before and after an entrepreneurial education and training program, and then to examine the effects of psychological attributes on EI among female students in Saudi Arabia. Instruments: A structural questionnaire applied to the participants of a detailed program that consisted of the combination of entrepreneurial education and training program. Participants and Region: 310 female university students from the final year of their degree program (Bachelor’s in business administration), age 21–25 years, from Saudi Arabia University, in the 14-week semester.	Research Findings: The entrepreneurial education and training programs based on active learning and learner-centered approaches have a significant role to improve the level of psychological attributes and EI of female students. The psychological attributes (training retention, self-confidence, tolerance of ambiguity, innovation and achievement motivation) positively influence EI. Due to the relationships between psychological attributes and EI, the students participating in entrepreneurial education and training program will enhance their EI through: –the retainment of more training content; –higher self-confidence; –the enhancement of their tolerance of ambiguity; –the enhancement of their achievement motivation; and –a higher level of innovation.
Entrepreneurial Transversal Skills and Growth Mindset; An Educational Research. [62]	Study Aim: To investigate the impact of an entrepreneurial training on students forma mentis (forma that include a fixed mindset and a growth mindset), and to explore if the self-efficiency works distinctive within the entrepreneurial skills in order to influence the mindset development. Instruments: Paper-based questionnaire designed by using validated measurement scales (creativity: seven items; building networks: eight items, persuasion: 10 items, self-efficacy: eight items, mindset: six items) and distributed during the beginning (T1) and the end (T2) of the training course. Participants: 48 students from the third and fourth year of upper secondary school, Florence, Italy.	Research Findings: A mediation role has been hypothesized between the self-efficacy with creativity (HP1), building networks (HP2), and persuasion (HP3) in relationship with the mindset. HP1 and HP2 were confirmed, and HP3 was not confirmed.
Understanding the Predictors of Entrepreneurial Intentions of Young People from Argentina, Belgium, Bulgaria, China and Romania. [63]	Study Aim: To apply a self-efficacy theory model to assess young people’s intentions to become entrepreneurs. Instruments: online survey with four sections: demographic variables (gender, age, country), Big Five ten-item personality inventory (extraversion, conscientiousness, intellect, neuroticism, and agreeableness), entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) with six subdimensions (developing new product and market opportunities (seven items), building an innovative environment (four items), initiating investor relationships (three items), defining core purpose (three items), coping with unexpected challenges (three items), developing critical human resources (three items); entrepreneurial intention (five items); applied in October 2021. Participants and Region: 203 young people (100 male), age 18–25 years, from Argentina (41), Belgium (35), Bulgaria (42), China (40), and Romania (45).	Research Findings: Entrepreneurial intentions are not influenced/predicted by: country of origin, gender, Big Five personality variables (applied over and above the demographic variables). EI is influenced/predicted by ESE subscales (applied over and above the personality variables). Skills, like developing new product and market opportunities, determined participants EI.
The Effect of Entrepreneurial Competence on Perceived Behavioral Control and Perspective of Gender. [64]	Study Aim: To examine the relationship between EC and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC). Objectives: to examine 1. the effect of EC on PBC with higher education students; 2. gender differences in the impact of EC on PBC. Instruments: A web survey based on EntreComp and Perceived Behavioral Control scale [65,66]; tested separately for men and women. Participants and Region: 501 first-year students (women 49%, mean age was 24 years) from Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences, Finland, 2019.	Research Findings: Higher entrepreneurial competence corresponds to higher perceived behavioral control. The competence area "Resources" is more important for women, while the competence area “into action” is more important for men (women should be supported in developing their competence in believing themselves, gathering needed resources, and understanding financial issues, whereas for men, the competencies are related to prioritizing, making decisions in uncertain situations, collaborating, and reflecting).
The Perception of Entrepreneurship Culture by Internal University Stakeholders. [67]	Study Aim: To present the perception of entrepreneurship education among students (on two-dimensional views: setting up a company and being professionally and educationally active). Instruments: The survey HEInnovate (28 questions) of European Commission and the OECD joint initiative, including the website with a self-assessment free tool for HEIs that wish to explore innovative potential. The survey was followed by group discussions. Participants and Region: 74 students (84% women), age 19–24 years, from the University of Economics in Krakow, in the academic year 2017–2018, from the fields of accounting and controlling, financing innovative projects, and modern business management.	Research Findings: The majority of respondents believed that: –the concept of entrepreneurship should not be attributed to founding enterprises exclusively; –entrepreneurial courses should be included in the universities curricula development (programs of the first study cycle, Bachelor); –the methods that best suit entrepreneurship education were: internships and job placements (direct contacts with the activities performed at the workplace), visits to companies, international projects, activities aimed at generating business ideas, activities aimed at starting entrepreneurial projects and inviting entrepreneurs as guests conducting classes with students. Entrepreneurship is mainly perceived as being professionally and educationally active.
Designing a Framework for Future Economists’ Digital Competence. [68]	Study Aim: To generalize apps for the development and measurement of economics students digital competence and levels of digital competence development. Instruments: A survey for two main groups of apps: general (applications intended and used to solve a range of different information tasks, like text, table and graphic processors, data management systems, and network tools) and professional purposes (including apps that that allow for the solving of professional tasks within a separate subject area) for economists. Participants and Region: 71 students of first (Bachelor) level of higher education, aged 19–23 years; Poltava State Agrarian University, Ukraine. The expert group included 12 people (educators, 5; scientific staff, 3; graduates, 2; bank manager, 1; entrepreneur, 1).	Research Findings: The approaches DigComp, DigCompEdu, DigCompOrg, OpenEdu, DigCompConsumers, and EntreComp were used in the creation of a framework for economics students’ digital competence measurement. The experts (93.4%) evaluate the proposed project positively. The economics students consider that: –they still need to develop their digital competencies (90.3%); and –their levels of digital competencies are sufficient to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) in professional activities (74.2%). Based on the work with many types of software in informatics disciplines, the respondents considered themselves as: –confident users, 87.1%; –average users, 9.7%; and –experts, 3.2%. The following components were evaluated positively: –working with data, 95%; –communication, 92%; –content development, 95%; –security, 88%; –problem-solving, 97%.
Creating Insight Among Students on Working Life Competencies Through Problem Based Learning. [69] Shared Responsibility of Higher Education Institutes (HEI) and Their Partners in Assuring Nursing Students’ Employability Skills. [70]	Study Aim: To help graduating nurses to identify their employability skills and priorities. Instruments: Interviews based on EntreComp (15 audio–video conversations, four audio conversations). The research questions were: 1. What are the employability competencies of nurses in the given working environment? 2. Do young nurses express these competencies? 3. How will the required competencies change in the future? Participants: 19 employers (private health, 5; public health, 8; family shelter, 1; international humanitarian aid work organization, 1). Region and Organizations: Laurea University of Applied Sciences of Finland (project Virtual Tours in business culture (V-Tours) cofunding from Erasmus + 2017–2018).	Research Findings: 1. The essential competencies were: –working with others (team-working, cooperation, multiprofessional working and collegiality); –mobilizing resources (evidence-based nursing, clinical nursing skills, IT skills, good professional skills and guidance skills); – coping with uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk (risk management, ability to make decisions, acting under pressure & stress, acting in changes and flexibility; –mobilizing others (interaction skills, ability to learn and teach and generally social skills; –taking the initiative (sense of initiative, consistency & independency, working professionally & multidisciplinary and expressing situational awareness. Other essential competencies were: creativity, motivation & perseverance. 2. It may not be easy as a job applicant to present transversal skills nor as an employer to observe and identify them. (e.g., communication is quite easy to observe and identify in the recruitment situation whereas flexibility is difficult for the job applicant to present). 3. The factors that will affect future competencies of nurses were: social and health services reform (in Finland), change in customers’ role in health care, changing demographics, immigration and international mobility, digitalization, progress of medicine, and financial resources.

In the case of theoretical orientation studies, the EntreComp framework was used for educational curricula evaluation/development and/or for evaluation/comparison of different models, whereas in the case of practical orientation studies, the EntreComp framework was used as an instrument/self-assessment tool in different groups of respondents.

4. Conclusions

The European Union (via the European Skills Agenda for Sustainable Competitiveness, Social Fairness, and Resilience) [71], the United Nations (via the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development) [72] and China (via China’s National Plan on Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development) [73] have strategic policy documents that consider and promote entrepreneurial (behavioral and intellectual) and sustainability competencies as (i) important factors in developing social and economic sustainability and (ii) key priorities for education and lifelong training. EntreComp can be considered a reference point European tool to support the development of shared concepts of entrepreneurship competencies, goal setting, and evaluation [3]. Generally, creative and good entrepreneurial ideas can bring value and the effect of entrepreneurial action on the target community, the market, society, and the environment [2].

Entrepreneurship competency is one of the eight key competencies (literacy competence; multilingual competence; mathematical competence and competence in science, technology and engineering; digital competence; personal, social and learning-to-learn competence; citizenship competence; entrepreneurship competence; and cultural awareness and expression competence) for promoting lifelong learning, employability, and ensuring success in a knowledge-based society [49].

This study presents a bibliometric review and research patterns and trends of publications addressing the EntreComp framework. A total of 37 documents from 71 organizations and 31 countries (collected from the WoS database, published between 2016–2022) were analyzed. The articles, the research of which mainly focus on (i) exploring the relationship between entrepreneurship competencies and entrepreneurial intention (in case of STEM students and considering gender differences) [22] or (ii) comparative analysis (in terms of aims, definitions, constructing approaches) of five entrepreneurship competencies models [23] are the most cited. The network of keywords shows that two main thematic lines of research are focusing on EntreComp competencies and education areas and/or enterprise/business areas, with lines of research showing strong links between EntreComp competencies and various study topics (entrepreneurial intention, self-efficacy, performance, innovation, skills, attitudes, gender, etc.).

Studies [41,51] used EntreComp to investigate: (1) if/how students’ entrepreneurship competencies were fostered in different programs/curricula or (2) its usefulness in curricula development. Quantitative (content) analysis of curricula, face-to-face interviews and surveys with program leaders or experts were used. The results of these studies showed that in some cases a part of the entrepreneurship competencies are present in the program documentation [29,49], whereas in others it is uncommon to include them as a feature in program documentation [51]. In [41] experts agreed that all 15 EntreComp competencies were important for trainees and that the analyzed training program should address all 15 EntreComp competencies and should be flexible to accommodate the needs of trainees on different career trajectories. The study [51] emphasized a lack of reference to enterprise in program documentation and a confusion of the language associated with enterprise and entrepreneurship. In addition, these studies concluded that future research on the degree of incorporation of entrepreneurship competencies at different international universities would give an overview of their importance and information regarding the extent to which they are considered key aspects in the training process [49]. Moreover, it is important to evaluate the usefulness of the EntreComp framework and effectiveness of the learning content/the methods used in various teaching subjects [51].

The study [30] examined how EntreComp has been integrated into education and training development in different countries. The results showed that EntreComp has been widely recognized as an important driver of competence in entrepreneurial education, which can increase motivation and understanding of entrepreneurship education in different transnational contexts. Moreover, the article underlines a lack of shared vision and development of practice in the use of EntreComp and the need for support and guidance in promoting the learning process, to support successful adoption and adaptation of the policy-driven frameworks.

In [23], the competencies of the EntreComp framework are compared with five other competence models (Nordic, Danish, UK, USA, and EU) and 19 common competencies were identified, among them responsibility, creativity, recognition of opportunities, exploitation, work in a team, and management skills.

Researchers also analyzed the relationships between EntreComp framework and other measures: entrepreneurial intention (EI) [2,22,25,58,63,64], start-up behavior [50], entrepreneurial (intrapreneurial) self-capital (ESC) [2]. In study [22], it is emphasized that the competencies of opportunity identification and evaluation, abilities related to commitment, decision-making, and teams’ organization (soft skills), positively influence the development of EI more than the high level of specific knowledge (e.g., on economics, finance, legal). A direct significant correlation relationship was observed between EntreComp competencies and EI and ESC (a set of positive self-concepts to identify key life goals, plan actions, and make decisions to achieve them) [2]. The results of the study [50] showed that entrepreneurship competence is related to start-up behavior, is sensitive to role models (parents or close relatives with experience of an entrepreneurial career) and prior experience of entrepreneurship, and is not sensitive to gender or level of education. Moreover, the results of the study [58] proved the existence of a complex relationship between entrepreneurship competence, business takeover intentions (including both transfer options of succession and buying a company) and family role models (mother or father’s entrepreneurship). The study [64] revealed a positive influence/relationship between entrepreneurial competence and perceived behavioral control (considered one of the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions) and also that gender has an effect on this relationship. The results from [74] demonstrated that entrepreneurial education elements (entrepreneurial skill, entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial intention) positively affect technology-based enterprises’ development, and motivation was considered as a mediator variable. By using the same variable, motivation, article [75] highlights the importance of social norms in the investigation of entrepreneurial intention in the academic environment.

Studies [28,29,69,70] showed a significant improvement for the subjects that have been using EntreComp in their activities, some of them related to the real-life practice (e.g., nure practitioners, agriculture technicians).

The studies [24,62] are presenting comparative results obtained before and after using EntreComp framework. An evaluation could assess if the attitudes and benefits relieved by EntreComp could change gradually the professional and private life of the subjects involved (see, for example [38,52,54,61,67,68,69,70]).

The EntreComp framework was used as a base for self-assessment (self-perception) tools for assessing entrepreneurial competencies/skills [2,22,50,58,64]. In [2], the psychometric analysis results showed a four-dimensional model with good reliability and validity of the data (in case of a sample of students from different universities and areas of knowledge). For future developments of the instrument, it was suggested (i) to include illustrative diagrams (spider diagrams), to visualize strengths and areas for improvement, (ii) expanding it with areas that would allow sustainability competencies to be evaluated more specifically. In [22], the used tool considered 22 self-reported competencies and factor analysis model results in five factors, offering a different categorization from the EntreComp theory (three constructs grouping). The study [50], by using the EntreComp framework with 15 items, in case of 1128 students (secondary and higher education level), show that although the framework proposes three distinct areas, entrepreneurship competence is unidimensional (in which the three areas are deeply interlinked). A unidimensional construct was also identified in study [58]. It would be recommended that entrepreneurial competency self-assessment tools include a psychometric validation, thus allowing comparative studies of groups (by demographic variables, educational levels, and countries) and evaluation of public policies and good practices [2].

Overall, this study provides insights regarding research addressing the EntreComp framework, which could guide future research directions of practitioners/policy makers/researchers/etc. in the entrepreneurial competencies field and other interconnected domains.