3.2. Variety of Biomass-Based Resources and Their Cultural Importance to Local Actors
The smallholder farmers exhibited extensive local knowledge in various types of biomass-based resources, which are mostly cultivated on their farmlands for their own consumption and for sale on local markets. For the category of food biomass-based resources, the local actors cited a total of 17 crop species, consisting of cereals (4 species), legumes (4), tubers (3), and vegetables (6). These crop species belong to Fabaceae and Poaceae, which are the most dominant plant families (
Table 3).
Looking at the various specific cognitive salience indices (CSI) for the cited food biomass-based resources, it was revealed that maize (
Zea mays) is regarded as the most dominant and culturally important for the local actors (with CSI: 0.652), followed by groundnuts (
Arachis hypogaea) with 0.500. It is also imperative to state that other cereals such as millet (
Pennisetum glaucum), guinea corn (
Sorghum bicolor), and rice (
Oryza sativa), were highly ranked with CSI values of 0.442, 0.415, and 0.404, respectively. These above-stated five food biomass-based resources are the major food and most culturally important biomass-based resources for the local actors (
Table 3). The dominance of maize in terms of its cultural importance to local actors is supported by the fact that it is one of the most important cereal crops produced and consumed in West Africa including Ghana [
31].
From the interviews with the local actors, the minor food biomass-based resources include tuber crops, e.g., yam (
Dioscorea villosa), cassava (
Manihot esculenta), and sweet potato (
Ipomoea batata), and various kinds of local vegetables, as reflected in the low CSI values of these food crop species (
Table 3). For the three tuber crops stated above, yam was found to be highly important, with CSI value of 0.201 among the Dagbani people in the Northern region, where it is largely cultivated by smallholder farmers. Although yams are not cultivated at all in the Upper East Region due to unsuitable topsoil, which does not support yam production in the region (personal communication with Mr. Simon Aboona), they are bought on local markets and consumed by local actors. Regarding the kinds of vegetables reported, sweet pepper (
Capsicum frutenscens), tomatoes (
Solanum lycopersicum), and perennial herb: Banana
(Musa paradisiaca) were seen be less culturally important, even though they are essential for consumption and sale on local markets by local actors (
Table 3). The assumption that maize, cassava, and plantain predominantly serve as biomass-producing crops during stakeholder workshops held in Accra was not fully confirmed by this study because maize was only found to be a major crop in the north of Ghana, while yam, cassava, and sweet potatoes were found to be minor crops. The finding of this study is largely similar in the whole savanna regions of northern Ghana. The results indicate that plantain crop was not even mentioned by local actors in the study regions. This is not surprising, because literature reveals that plantain is an important crop for many rural households in the southern regions of Ghana, and its residues have hugely untapped potential for the Ghanaian bioeconomy sector [
32]. Cassava and yams are also widely cultivated in the southern Regions of Ghana. This may be true for the southern sector due to suitable prevailing environmental conditions for these crops. It is also reported that the cassava crop is a very popular food crop in Nigeria for local food, starch, and industrial purposes [
33]. This study also revealed that the collectors largely engage in the purchase of seeds or tubers of harvested major and minor crops species cultivated by smallholder farmers in the study regions, as well as firewood or charcoal production from tree species, and herbaceous species for forage (
Appendix A Table A1). In incidences of prolonged droughts, local actors also buy crop residues to provide forage for their domestic livestock, or tree trunks for roofing purposes (
Appendix A Table A1).
3.4. Value Webs, Challenges and Future Actions Regarding Sustainable Use of Biomass-Based Resources
Identification of biomass-based value webs: Based on the findings of this study (
Table 2), the five most culturally important food crops to local actors were selected for identification and assessment of value webs. Three of the five major food crops, namely maize, guinea corn, and millet, which have similar production processes and domestic uses, are used to construct a single simplified value web (
Figure 1). For instance, these three major crops are domestically used to prepare a multiplicity of local cuisines such as tuo-zaafi, banku, porridge, and local drinks like
pito (locally brewed drink), commonly consumed by both local farmers and collectors in the country (
Figure 1). The component of the non-food biomass resources has also reflected in the value web illustrations. Thus, the residues of these harvested crops, including their dried stocks, are used for various purposes, such as animal feed, sources of fuel, and compost manure (
Figure 1). For the other two major food crops, namely groundnuts and rice, separate value webs are constructed for each because they have marked different kinds of domestic uses for both smallholder farmers and local commercial intermediaries (
Figure 2 and
Figure 3). With respect to groundnuts, various kinds of processed local foods such as cooking oil, roasted groundnuts,
Kulikuli (grounded into balls and fried), and groundnut paste for local soup, are prepared. Groundnuts are also largely cultivated as cash crops for sale. For rice, it is a popular food crop grown by many smallholder farmers in Ghana since it is used to prepare several local dishes including plain rice, jollof rice, rice water, rice balls, and
waakye (local dish prepared from rice and beans). The residues from groundnuts and rice are used to feed livestock and as a source of compost manure (
Figure 2 and
Figure 3). The identified value webs of these selected major food crops and associated non-food residues were seen not to be elaborately developed and are still traditional in nature, since there are no cascading uses for by-products or little value being added to local actors’ farm produce before selling them on local markets in the studied rural communities (
Figure 1,
Figure 2 and
Figure 3). This finding is not surprising because the local actors are low-income earners and largely depend on simple farming practices (e.g., hoes and cutlasses, and seldom use tractors for weeding), traditional sowing and harvesting (e.g., by hand and knife), and processing (e.g., grinding mills) for their survival. This may also be attributable to lack of value addition to local produce or very little value addition to food biomass-based resources by smallholder farmers and local commercial intermediaries for sale to customers on local markets. This is also supported by the fact that many low-income, agrarian-dominated countries are not fully exploiting processing opportunities for their biomass-based products before they are exported to other countries [
21]. It is also imperative to state that all local actors interviewed said that they cared less after selling their food stuff, and therefore had no knowledge where their goods were transported to by the local commercial intermediaries. Among the main dimensions of food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability in the definition of food security [
37], the availability of food is considered critical in the value webs construction to reflect household food security.
The minor crops, e.g., yam, cassava, sweet potato, and vegetables, equally play crucial roles in the lives of the local actors, although they are not well-patronized as compared to the major food crops. Specifically, yams and cassava are known for processing
fufu (freshly pounded yams) and
gari (graded and dried cassava), respectively, while vegetables are used as spices and for soup preparation. It has been argued that the cascade of uses and interlinking of value chains are instrumental to increase the efficiency of resources in the bioeconomy sector [
21]. A value chain approach, which is a simplified biomass-based value chain, oftentimes entails primary production, conversion, and markets in a linear manner in the context of bioeconomy [
38], is however considered insufficient, and a value web approach may be able to close this knowledge gap [
21]. The competing uses of these biological materials can lead to their unavailability for local consumption purposes. This may increase incidences of household food insecurity when biomass-based resources are used unsustainably. Thus, the various types of local dishes prepared from food biomass-based resources and consumed by smallholder farmers and collectors does have a reducing effect on the availability of these food crops (
Figure 1,
Figure 2 and
Figure 3). On the other hand, adequate production and sustainable management of these biomass-based resources will lead to the target of individual household food security (
Figure 1,
Figure 2 and
Figure 3). The identified value webs show low level of interlinkages among various crop species cultivated and used in Ghana, and this may be similar to other African bioeconomy sectors. As subsistence farmers, these cereal, leguminous, and tuber crops including vegetables can meet their individual household food security needs in various rural communities if they are available for consumption.
Challenges in the use of biomass-based resources at the community level: Given the findings of this study, the local actors mentioned a plethora of challenges, which negatively affected the various stages of their biomass-based production, processing, storage, transportation, and trading at the community level. It is important to note that these challenges are largely in the nature of economic, social, logistics, marketing, soil health, and climate-related issues. The majority of the local actors (50%) attributed their challenge situations to their currently poor economic state in the sense that they lack the needed funds or money to acquire farm implements such as tractors and combined harvesters for improved agricultural activities (
Figure 4).
Linked to the economic challenges, smallholder farmers and local commercial intermediaries stated that they have difficulty buying sacks for storage and pesticides for pest or insect control purposes. With limited finances on their own, local actors reported that they cannot cover the high cost of labor or transportation to either increase farmlands or reduce post-harvest losses, respectively. Additionally, the problems of lack of logistics (35%) and marketing opportunities (35%) are scored equally high by local actors (
Figure 4). For instance, inadequate availability of grinding mills or processing centers for processing grains into flour is also affecting them negatively. The unstable power supply, especially in the deprived rural communities, makes the grinding mills not able to operate and requires them to wait for long hours at the processing centers. They therefore have no other option than to engage in the traditional ways of production, processing, storage, transportation, and trading at the community level. There are also no warehouses to store their perishable food stuff (e.g., vegetables and other grains) before transporting them to local markets. The problem of logistics is compounded by poor road networks connecting farms or homes to local markets, leading to high post-harvest losses or high cost of farm produce. The smallholder farmers have also been battling with invasion of army worms on their maize and guinea corn farms in all study areas visited. About 25% of local actors said their challenges are also social in nature. That is, there is mistrust between smallholder farmers and collectors or traders, leading to unfair pricing (either too high or too low) of food stuff.
The impact of climate change (constituting 18% of local actors) was also cited to be quite challenging to the smallholder farmers, in particular due to increasing erratic rainfall patterns and high temperatures, which negatively affect their crop productivity. The local actors explained that the reduction in the number of bags of food crops harvested over the years is directly affected by the changing local climatic conditions as stated above. The least number of local actors (12% of them) reported that soil health (
Figure 4) is not as good as before due to infertile lands everywhere, leading to low productivity of food crops. For those that are still ready to establish farmlands are faced with either lack or inadequacy of arable lands for farming. These stated challenges are not only experienced in Ghana, but also in other parts of Africa regarding the use of biomass-based resources [
39]. These prevailing locally known challenges could lead to household food insecurity issues among the low-income earners in the studied rural communities.
The future actions for sustainable use of biomass-based resources: In soliciting their viewpoints on how to address the above-stated challenges, the local actors proffered several solutions. The most dominant solution was that Ghana government should assist in the provision of funds in the form of credit to local actors. About 50% of local actors stated that the rural road networks and transportation opportunities in farming communities should be improved through social interventions from central government to open access to distant farmlands, homes, and local/international markets (
Figure 5). Without money, the local actors are unable to buy tractors, grinding mills, and storage facilities relevant for their farming activities. The current agricultural policy intervention of ‘Planting for Food and Jobs (PFJ)’ in Ghana seeks to use agriculture to boost food production and job creation for particularly the youth in the country (see
www.mofa.gov.gh for details). Sustainable implementation of such a laudable policy is in doubt due to political reasons attached to it, as the policy may risk discontinuation if political power shifts from the current government to an opposition party in the 2020 general elections. As previously experienced, Ghana is known for helping local farmers with fertilizer subsidies since 2008 [
31]. However, such a pro-poor agricultural policy has not been successfully done due to diversion of subsidized fertilizer by officials from target smallholder farmers, or smuggling of the subsidized fertilizer out of Ghana to neighboring countries for more profit. About 40% of the local actors suggested creation of ready local markets by the government of Ghana to enable smallholder farmers and collectors to get good prices for farm produce (
Figure 5).
The local actors also stated that there should be adequate public education on modern agricultural practices, e.g., fertilizer use, etc. through effective agricultural extension services, representing about 30% of local actors’ viewpoints. Lastly, reduction in labor cost for purposes of farming activities should be done in collaboration of key stakeholders in the agricultural sector (
Figure 5). Surprisingly, irrigation for dry season farming was not cited by local actors as a counter measure to erratic rainfall patterns due to local climate change. This may be due to attribution of climate change impacts by local people to natural phenomenon or God’s intervention [
40] and coupled with high cost of irrigation for dry season farming. This thus leads to over dependence on rain-fed agriculture and associated risks for smallholder farmers in the studied regions of Ghana.