Climatic and Socioeconomic Aspects of Mushrooms: The Case of Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Climate as a Predictor of the Natural Fruiting of Macrofungi Carpophores
3.2. Phenology, Phenological Patterns and recent Trends in the Natural Production of Mushrooms, A Symptom of Climate Change?
3.3. Cultivation and Consumption of Fungi
3.4. Truffle-Farming and Future Potential for Peripheral Rural Areas
3.5. Multifunctional Management of the Mycological Landscape: Environmental Return from Wild Resources, Mycological Tourism and Mushroom-Related Silviculture
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mycological Terms | Sporocarp; Fungi; Macrofungi; Macromycetes; Mycelium; Mycoflora; Mycorrhizas; Mushrooms; Truffle; Tuber |
---|---|
Biogeography and Environment Terms | Thinning of forest; biogeography; time changes (in fruiting patterns); forest cover; chorology; fruiting bodies; diversity; age of the forest; endemicity; seasonality; environmental factors; phenology; fruiting patterns; habitats; hygrophilous; distribution models; niche; pending; production; sporocarps; thermophilic; geographical variation; xerophyte |
Climate Terms | Global warming; climate; climate change; weather; evapotranspiration; precipitation; drought; temperature; meteorological variables; Hydric Balance |
Socioeconomic Terms | Economic profit; economic contribution; development; rural development; employment; gastronomy; forest management; socioeconomic impact; income; mycotourism; multifunctionality of forests; price; non-wood forest products; mushroom picking; truffle picking; edible mushrooms; silviculture; tourism; mycological tourism; economic value; economic variables; sales |
Geographical Data | Mycological Data | Main Results | References |
---|---|---|---|
SW Yukon, Canada Climate: Dfc | EF (annual), 15 years ECM and SAP | Biomass r May P (tyear-1) = +0.75 r June P (to) = +0.68 | [52] |
Chanéaz, Switzerland Climate: Cfb/Dfb | EF (annual), 36 years ECM | Carpophores (number) r annual T (to) = +0.92 (12-annual moving average) | [56] |
Chanéaz, Switzerland Climate: Cfb/Dfb | EF (annual), 36 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) r April and August T (to) = +0.72 r ∑ P (to) = +0.5 | [45] |
Higashiyama, Japan Climate: Cfa | EF (annual), 30 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) r monthly T (to) ≈+0.5 r ∑ P (to) ≈+0.5 | [57] |
Soria, Spain Climate: Csb (2) | EF (autumn), 15 years ECM and SAP | Biomass r ∑ P (t≥10 days) = +0.64 | [6] |
Pyrenees, Spain Climate: Cfb/Csb | EF (autumn), 13 years ECM and SAP | Biomass r ∑ August–November P (to) = +0.86 | [47] |
Mediterranean, Europe Climate: Cfa/b-Csa/b | HF (winter), 37 years ECM Tuber melanosporum | Biomass r ∑ July–August P (tyear-1) = +0.6 r means July–August T (tyear-1) = −0.57 | [49] |
South of France Climate: Csa (2) | HF (winter), 24 years ECM Tuber melanosporum Tuber brumale (5%) | Sales from two main markets r ∑ May-August HB (tyear-1) = +0.61 and + 0.68 (depending on the market) | [50] |
Geographical Data | Mycological Data | Most Important Results | References |
---|---|---|---|
Norway and the United Kingdom Climate: ET, Df, Cfb | EF (spring), 48 years ECM and SAP (mainly) | Carpophores (number) 1.Phenological changes:tart of season has moved forward (3.8 days/decade) | [53] |
Norway, the United Kingdom, Austria and Switzerland Climate: ET, Df, Cfb | EF (autumn), 38 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) 1. Phenological changes: Lengthening of the season (start delayed and finish delayed) with differences between species and countries | [2] |
Michigan, USA Climate: Dfa/b | EF (annual), 101 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) 1. Phenological changes: Start delayed (0.18 days/decade) with differences between functional groups and host types (deciduous vs evergreen) 2. Production trends ( = ) | [65] |
Chanéaz, Switzerland Climate: Cfb/Dfb | EF (annual), 36 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) 1. Phenology: peak of production (September-October) 2. Phenological changes: Start delayed (13 days from 1975 to 2006) with differences between functional groups and host types (deciduous vs evergreen) 3. Positive production trends in both ECM and SAP | [45] |
Chanéaz, Switzerland Climate: Cfb/Dfb | EF (annual), 36 years ECM | Carpophores (number) 1. Phenology: peak of production (September-October) 2. Phenological changes: delayed peak production (1975–1990/1991–2006: 10 days) and lengthening of season 3. Positive production trends(1975–1990/1991–2006: number of carpophores per week from 42 to 88) | [57] |
Salisbury, United Kingdom Climate: Cfb | EF (autumn), 56 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) 1. Phenological changes: lengthening of season: from 33.2 ±1.6 days in 1950 to 74.8 ± 7.6 days in 2005 (start brought forward and end delayed) | [66,67] |
Higashiyama, Japan Climate: Cfa | EF (annual), 30 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) 1. Phenology: ECM unimodal pattern: peak production (July); small decomposers bimodal pattern: production peaks (early summer and early autumn) 2. Positive production trends only wood decomposer fungi (due to aging of the forest) | [58] |
Soria, Spain Climate: Csb (2) | EF (autumn), 15 years ECM and SAP | Carpophores (number) and Biomass 1. Phenology: start 40.4 ± 0.6 weeks, end 47.5 ± 0.5 weeks), duration (7.1 ± 0.7 weeks) | [6] |
Type | Rain-fed | Irrigated | Source | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Herbaceous crops | Corn | 2340 | [73,74,75,76] | |
barley | 510 | 781 | ||
wheat | 589 | 948 | ||
sunflowers | 323 | |||
dried peas | 267 | |||
Vegetables | peppers (greenhouse) | 54,723 | [77,78,79,80,81,82] | |
watermelons | 10,408 | |||
tomatoes (greenhouse) | 53,136 | |||
melons | 6441 | |||
Fruit | oranges | 4384 | [83,84,85,86,87,88] | |
peaches | 7623 | |||
olives (Mill) | 905 | 2040 | ||
plums | 9138 | |||
nectarines | 9327 | |||
almonds | 699 | |||
Truffle farming | Tuber melanosporum | 5400 | ||
19,424–66,972 | [35] | |||
12,000 | Production [89] and prices [35] | |||
Terfezia claveryi | 1028 | Production* [90] and price of 5 euros/kg |
Product | Economic Value in Thousands of Euros | % of Total Economic Value |
---|---|---|
Logging | 721,416 (Value in the loading bay in 2009) | 72.7 |
Firewood | 23,775 (Value in 2009) | 2.4 |
Cork | 51,242 | 5.7 |
Resin | 4157 | 0.4 |
Esparto | 2 | 0.0 |
Chestnuts | 1200 | 0.1 |
Truffles | 1293 | 0.1 |
Other fungi | 108,350 | 10.9 |
Other fruit, plants and products | 7443 | 0.8 |
Hunting and fishing | 73,228.21 | 7.4 |
Total | 992,106 | 100 |
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Martínez-Ibarra, E.; Gómez-Martín, M.B.; Armesto-López, X.A. Climatic and Socioeconomic Aspects of Mushrooms: The Case of Spain. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1030. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041030
Martínez-Ibarra E, Gómez-Martín MB, Armesto-López XA. Climatic and Socioeconomic Aspects of Mushrooms: The Case of Spain. Sustainability. 2019; 11(4):1030. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041030
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartínez-Ibarra, Emilio, María Belén Gómez-Martín, and Xosé Anton Armesto-López. 2019. "Climatic and Socioeconomic Aspects of Mushrooms: The Case of Spain" Sustainability 11, no. 4: 1030. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041030
APA StyleMartínez-Ibarra, E., Gómez-Martín, M. B., & Armesto-López, X. A. (2019). Climatic and Socioeconomic Aspects of Mushrooms: The Case of Spain. Sustainability, 11(4), 1030. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041030