Real-World Mobility and Environmental Data for the Assessment of In-Vehicle Battery Capacity Fade
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background Information and Methodology
2.1. TEMA Platform
2.2. Battery Aging Models
2.3. Reference Vehicles, Battery Architectures, and Recharge Strategies
2.4. Ambient Temperature
3. Results
3.1. Mobility Patterns in Different EU Geographic Regions
3.2. Capacity Fade Results in Real-World Use Conditions
3.3. Capacity Fade Results: Effect on Warm Environmental Temperature
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
BEV | Battery Electric Vehicle |
BoL | Beginning of Life |
BMS | Battery Management System |
EoL | End of Life |
EVE IWG | Electric Vehicles and Environment Informal Working Group |
GMT | Greenwich Mean Time |
GPS | Global Positioning System |
GRPE | Working Party on Pollution and Energy |
HVAC | Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning |
LiFePO4 | Lithium-Iron-Phosphate |
Li-ion | Lithium-ion |
LMO | Lithium Manganese Oxide |
NCM | Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide |
PHEV | Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
SOC | State of Charge |
TEMA | Transport tEchnology and Mobility Assessment |
WP.29 | UN’s World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations |
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No. of Days [#] | No. of Vehicles [#] | Records [·106] | Trips [·106] | Total Trips Lengths [km·106] | No. of Trip per Day (Mean) [#] | Trip Length [km] (Mean) | Daily Driven Distance (Mean) [km] | Private Vehicles Share | Commercial Vehicles Share | Analyzed Sample (% of Registered Vehicles in the Province Area) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Modena province | 31 | 16,263 | 16.00 | 1.9 | 14.98 | 6.6 | 7.8 | 51.9 | 91.6% | 8.4% | 3.68% |
Florence province | 31 | 12,478 | 32.01 | 2.6 | 20.66 | 6.4 | 8.0 | 51.3 | 90.9% | 9.1% | 1.82% |
Amsterdam province | 7 | 197,756 | 466.28 | 1.1 | 19.86 | 1.9 | 19.7 | 37.2 | 83.2% | 16.8% | 17.17% |
Brussels province | 14 | 96,802 | 277.05 | 1.1 | 11.21 | 7.9 | 7.7 | 55.2 | 91.2% | 8.8% | 16.26% |
Paris province | 7 | 171,220 | 963.27 | 2.3 | 38.39 | 4.2 | 17.0 | 71.7 | 99.1% | 0.9% | 2.43% |
Luxemb. province | 7 | 14,090 | 24.33 | 0.08 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 11.9 | 30.1 | 92.0% | 8.0% | 17.63% |
TOTAL | 508,609 | 1.78 × 103 | 9.08 | 106.1 |
Capacity Fade | Power Fade | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model # | Calendar | Cycle | Model # | Calendar | Cycle | |
LiFePO4 | Model 1 | Sarasketa-Zabala et al. (2013/14) [11,12] | Wang et al. (2011), [10] | Model 1 | Sarasketa-Zabala et al. (2013), [11] | |
Model 2 | Sarasketa-Zabala et al. (2013), [3,11] | |||||
Model 3 | Sarasketa-Zabala et al. (2015), [13] | |||||
NCM + spinel Mn | Model 4 | Wang et al. (2014), [14,15] | - | - | ||
NCM–LMO | Model 5 | Wang et al. (2014), [14,15] | Cordoba-Arenas et al. (2014), [16] | Model 2 | - | Cordoba-Arenas et al. (2015), [16] |
Vehicle Type | Battery Size [Wh] | Battery Shape and Cells Type | Usable Energy at BoL [Wh] | Usable Energy at EoL [Wh] | Reserve [% of Battery Capacity] | Energy Consumption [Wh/km] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PHEV-1 | Large-sized vehicle | 16,000 | T-shaped pouch cells | 12,000 | 9600 | 25% | 205 |
PHEV-2 | Medium-sized vehicle | 8800 | Parallelepiped Prismatic cell | 6600 | 5280 | 25% | 160 |
PHEV-3 | Large-sized vehicle | 12,000 | Parallelepiped Prismatic cell | 9000 | 7200 | 25% | 194 |
BEV-1 | Medium-sized vehicle | 24,000 | Parallelepiped pouch cells | 18,000 | 14,400 | 15% | 210 |
BEV-2 | Large-sized vehicle | 85,000 | Flat cylindrical cells | 63,750 | 51,000 | 15% | 235 |
Strategy ID–Name | Recharge Constraints | Power [kW] | Recharge Model Inputs |
---|---|---|---|
1–Long-Stop Random AC | parking ≥ 120 min and random parameter ≥ 0.6 | 2 | parking duration and random parameter |
2–Short-Stop Random DC | parking ≥ 20 min and random parameter ≥ 0.6 | 40 | parking duration and random parameter |
3–Night AC | parking ≥ 4 h and parking between 10 p.m. and 7 a.m. | 2 | parking duration and night recharge window |
Average Trip Distance [km] | Average Trip Duration [min] | Average Parking Duration [h] | Average Trip Speed [km/h] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Private Vehicles | Province of Modena | 7.69 | 11.63 | 4.07 | 28.92 |
Province of Florence | 7.85 | 13.0 | 4.33 | 26.13 | |
Province of Amsterdam | 19.68 | 14.32 | 1.14 | 78.75 | |
Province of Brussels | 7.75 | 9.13 | 1.45 | 51.98 | |
Province of Paris | 16.97 | 20.05 | 1.18 | 44.87 | |
Province of Luxembourg | 11.88 | 13.99 | 1.703 | 54.491 |
EoL @ 80% Capacity Fade Li-Ion NCM-LMO (2015) Years Driving to Set Threshold | 0–500 km/month | 500–1000 km/month | 1000–1500 km/month | 1500–2000 km/month | 2000+ km/month | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | |||
Recharge Strategy #1 | PHEV-1 | Modena Prov. | 16.5 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 14.6 | 14.2 | ≥20 | |||||||||
Amsterdam Prov. | 19.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 16.4 | 14.2 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Brussels Prov. | 18.9 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 16.1 | 15.0 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 18.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 15.8 | 13.2 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Paris Prov. | 16.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 14.5 | 13.5 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
BEV-1 | Modena Prov. | 9.7 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.6 | 12.8 | ≥20 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 12.6 | |||||||
Amsterdam Prov. | 11.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.7 | 13.9 | ≥20 | 9.0 | 7.5 | 12.0 | ||||||||
Brussels Prov. | 11.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.5 | 14.3 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 10.6 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.4 | 13.2 | ≥20 | 8.8 | 7.4 | 11.9 | ||||||||
Paris Prov. | 9.5 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.6 | 12.9 | ≥20 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 12.0 | 8.1 | 5.2 | 9.5 | |||||
BEV-2 | Modena Prov. | 12.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 12.7 | 11.2 | 17.9 | 13.6 | 6.9 | 11.0 | 14.7 | 5 | 8.1 | 16.1 | 3.9 | 6.3 | |
Amsterdam Prov. | 13.9 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.7 | 11.6 | 18.6 | 13.7 | 7.2 | 11.5 | 14.3 | 5.2 | 8.3 | 15.7 | 4.0 | 6.4 | ||
Brussels Prov. | 13.4 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.4 | 13.2 | ≥20 | 14.1 | 7.5 | 12.0 | ||||||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 13.4 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.4 | 11.6 | 18.5 | 13.6 | 7.1 | 11.4 | 14.2 | 5.1 | 8.2 | 14.7 | 4.1 | 6.6 | ||
Paris Prov. | 12.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 12.0 | 11.2 | 17.9 | 12.1 | 7.0 | 11.3 | 12.8 | 5.1 | 8.1 | 14.1 | 3.8 | 6.1 | ||
Recharge Strategy #2 | BEV-1 | Modena Prov. | 9.3 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 7.9 | 11.7 | 18.7 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 11.4 | 6.6 | 5.1 | 8.1 | 6.2 | 3.7 | 6 |
Amsterdam Prov. | 11.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.2 | 13.3 | ≥20 | 8.1 | 7.4 | 11.8 | 7.5 | 5.2 | 8.3 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 6.5 | ||
Brussels Prov. | 11.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.9 | 13.2 | ≥20 | 7.9 | 7.1 | 11.4 | 7.4 | 5.1 | 8.2 | |||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 10.5 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.8 | 12.2 | 19.5 | 7.8 | 6.9 | 11.1 | 7.2 | 4.9 | 7.8 | 6.6 | 3.5 | 5.6 | ||
Paris Prov. | 9.3 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.0 | 12.0 | 19.2 | 7.2 | 7.0 | 11.2 | 6.7 | 4.9 | 7.9 | 6.3 | 3.7 | 5.9 | ||
BEV-2 | Modena Prov. | 11.6 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 11.4 | 11 | 17.7 | 11.3 | 6.8 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 4.8 | 7.7 | 11.2 | 3.4 | 5.4 | |
Amsterdam Prov. | 13.7 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.2 | 11.7 | 18.8 | 13.0 | 7.0 | 11.2 | 12.8 | 4.9 | 7.9 | 12.7 | 3.5 | 5.7 | ||
Brussels Prov. | 13.2 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 12.8 | 12.8 | ≥20 | 12.7 | 6.9 | 11.0 | 13.1 | 4.8 | 7.7 | 13.2 | 3.7 | 5.9 | ||
Luxembourg Prov. | 13.2 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 12.8 | 11.7 | 18.6 | 12.6 | 7.0 | 11.2 | 12.5 | 4.9 | 7.9 | 12.5 | 3.4 | 5.5 | ||
Paris Prov. | 11.8 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 11.5 | 11.3 | 18.0 | 11.4 | 6.8 | 10.9 | 11.3 | 4.8 | 7.7 | 11.4 | 3.0 | 4.8 | ||
Recharge Strategy #3 | PHEV-1 | Modena Prov. | 16.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 14.4 | 12.3 | 19.8 | 13.7 | 7.7 | 12.3 | ||||||
Amsterdam Prov. | 19.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | ||||||||||||||
Brussels Prov. | 18.8 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 16.1 | 14.9 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 17.8 | ≥20 | ≥20 | ||||||||||||||
Paris Prov. | 16.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 14.4 | 13.6 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
BEV-1 | Modena Prov. | 9.6 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.5 | 11.7 | 18.7 | 8.2 | 7.2 | 11.5 | 8 | 5.2 | 8.4 | ||||
Amsterdam Prov. | 11.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.6 | 14.3 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Brussels Prov. | 11.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.6 | 15.2 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 10.4 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.3 | 13.7 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Paris Prov. | 9.4 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.6 | 13.9 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
BEV-2 | Modena Prov. | 12.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 12.7 | 11.1 | 17.7 | 13.7 | 6.8 | 10.9 | 14.8 | 4.9 | 7.9 | 16 | 4 | 6.4 | |
Amsterdam Prov. | 13.9 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.6 | 11.7 | 18.7 | 13.4 | 7.4 | 11.8 | ||||||||
Brussels Prov. | 13.2 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.0 | 14.6 | ≥20 | |||||||||||
Luxembourg Prov. | 13.4 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 13.1 | 11.5 | 18.4 | 13.0 | 6.7 | 10.7 | 12.7 | 5.0 | 8.1 | 12.4 | 3.5 | 5.6 | ||
Paris Prov. | 12.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 11.8 | 11.1 | 17.8 | 11.7 | 7.4 | 11.8 | 13.0 | 5.0 | 8.1 |
EoL @ 80% Capacity Fade Li-Ion NCM-LMO (2015) Years Driving to Set Threshold Warm Environment Temperature (Lisbon 2017) | Fleet Share | 0–500 km/Month | 500–1000 km/Month | 1000–1500 km/Month | 1500–2000 km/Month | 2000+ km/Month | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | Years to EoL | Years to 100,000 km | Years to 160,000 km | ||||
Recharge Strategy #1 | Modena Prov. | BEV-1 | 9.9% | 7.0 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 6.3 | 13.2 | ≥20 | - | - | - | ||||||
BEV-2 | 46.4% | 8.5 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 9.2 | 11.3 | 18.0 | 9.9 | 7.0 | 11.3 | 10.8 | 5.2 | 8.3 | 11.9 | 4.1 | 6.5 | ||
Recharge Strategy #2 | Modena Prov. | BEV-1 | 19.9% | 6.5 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 5.6 | 12.0 | 19.2 | 5.0 | 7.2 | 11.6 | 4.7 | 5.2 | 8.4 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 6.0 |
BEV-2 | 75.0% | 8.1 | ≥20 | ≥20 | 8.0 | 11.1 | 17.7 | 7.9 | 6.8 | 10.8 | 7.9 | 4.9 | 7.8 | 7.9 | 3.5 | 5.5 |
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Paffumi, E.; Martini, G. Real-World Mobility and Environmental Data for the Assessment of In-Vehicle Battery Capacity Fade. World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12, 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010048
Paffumi E, Martini G. Real-World Mobility and Environmental Data for the Assessment of In-Vehicle Battery Capacity Fade. World Electric Vehicle Journal. 2021; 12(1):48. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010048
Chicago/Turabian StylePaffumi, Elena, and Giorgio Martini. 2021. "Real-World Mobility and Environmental Data for the Assessment of In-Vehicle Battery Capacity Fade" World Electric Vehicle Journal 12, no. 1: 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010048