Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sample Collection and Preparation
2.3. Sampling Analysis
2.4. Pollution Characteristics
2.4.1. Enrichment Factors (EFs)
2.4.2. Geo-Accumulation Index (Igeo)
2.4.3. Contamination Factor (Cf) and Contamination Degree (Cd)
2.4.4. Pollution Load Index (PLI)
2.4.5. Potential Ecological Risk Assessment
2.5. Human Health Risk Assessment
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Concentrations and Distribution of PHEs in ACFD of Mosques
3.2. PHEs Pollution Characteristics in ACFD of Mosques
3.2.1. Contamination Factors (Cf) and Degree of Contamination (Cd)
3.2.2. Pollution Load Index (PLI)
3.2.3. Geo-Accumulation Index (Igeo)
3.2.4. Enrichment Factor (EF)
3.2.5. Ecological Risk Assessment
3.3. Human Health Risk Evaluation
3.3.1. Non-Carcinogenic Risk
3.3.2. Carcinogenic Risk
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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City | Fe | Al | Zn | Mn | Cu | Cr | Pb | Ni | V | Co | As | Cd | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jubail | Minimum (mg/kg) | 7831.0 | 3368.5 | 362.2 | 270.7 | 95.3 | 33.5 | 26.6 | 32.4 | 19.6 | 3.2 | 2.2 | 0.7 |
Maximum (mg/kg) | 15,006.0 | 11,005.5 | 1065.1 | 478.0 | 273.6 | 57.3 | 97.5 | 55.7 | 40.8 | 8.1 | 6.0 | 1.7 | |
Median (mg/kg) | 11,116.0 | 4932.5 | 768.1 | 370.0 | 131.7 | 47.1 | 33.8 | 45.5 | 28.3 | 4.1 | 4.6 | 1.0 | |
Arithmetical mean (AM) (mg/kg) | 10,797.9 | 5662.8 | 764.1 | 386.0 | 160.9 | 45.1 | 51.2 | 43.7 | 28.5 | 4.6 | 4.3 | 1.1 | |
Geometrical mean (GM) (mg/kg) | 10,503.1 | 5248.4 | 731.8 | 381.1 | 150.2 | 44.3 | 44.8 | 42.8 | 27.6 | 4.4 | 4.1 | 1.0 | |
Standard deviation (SD) | 2679.3 | 2519.5 | 219.8 | 64.3 | 67.3 | 8.6 | 28.1 | 9.3 | 7.8 | 1.7 | 1.3 | 0.3 | |
Standard Error (SE) | 893.1 | 839.8 | 73.3 | 21.4 | 22.4 | 2.9 | 9.4 | 3.1 | 2.6 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | |
Coefficient of variation (CV, %) | 24.8 | 44.5 | 28.8 | 16.7 | 41.8 | 19.1 | 55.0 | 21.3 | 27.3 | 36.1 | 29.4 | 32.1 | |
95% confidence limit value (C95%UCL) | 12,857.0 | 7598.0 | 932.9 | 435.4 | 212.6 | 51.7 | 72.8 | 50.8 | 34.5 | 5.9 | 5.3 | 1.4 | |
Dammam metropolitan | Minimum (mg/kg) | 6611.0 | 4063.5 | 365.0 | 143.3 | 109.3 | 36.1 | 27.9 | 29.1 | 17.2 | 4.0 | 2.4 | 0.8 |
Maximum (mg/kg) | 17,356.0 | 11,305.5 | 1672.1 | 401.8 | 340.5 | 99.0 | 171.9 | 68.4 | 43.8 | 8.8 | 7.6 | 1.8 | |
Median (mg/kg) | 11,426.0 | 7675.5 | 781.0 | 284.1 | 222.9 | 47.7 | 40.0 | 46.2 | 33.8 | 6.4 | 4.6 | 1.2 | |
Arithmetical mean (AM) (mg/kg) | 11,138.2 | 7469.0 | 832.3 | 271.5 | 208.6 | 50.6 | 54.3 | 48.1 | 32.7 | 6.6 | 4.5 | 1.2 | |
Geometrical mean (GM) (mg/kg) | 10,871.9 | 7303.7 | 765.8 | 265.2 | 202.0 | 49.2 | 47.1 | 47.2 | 31.8 | 6.4 | 4.3 | 1.2 | |
Standard deviation (SD) | 2540.4 | 1556.0 | 357.0 | 57.5 | 52.8 | 14.3 | 37.1 | 9.2 | 7.2 | 1.3 | 1.5 | 0.3 | |
Standard Error (SE) | 598.8 | 366.8 | 84.2 | 13.6 | 12.5 | 3.4 | 8.7 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.1 | |
Coefficient of variation (CV, %) | 22.8 | 20.8 | 42.9 | 21.2 | 25.3 | 28.2 | 68.3 | 19.1 | 21.9 | 20.0 | 33.4 | 25.8 | |
95% confidence limit value (C95%UCL) | 12,401.5 | 8077.5 | 1009.9 | 300.1 | 234.9 | 57.7 | 72.7 | 52.6 | 36.2 | 7.2 | 5.3 | 1.4 | |
Jeddah | Minimum (mg/kg) | 7911.0 | 5318.5 | 464.0 | 186.7 | 123.3 | 37.0 | 60.7 | 31.3 | 40.7 | 5.4 | 1.3 | 1.0 |
Maximum (mg/kg) | 29,246.0 | 16,055.5 | 1774.1 | 530.8 | 514.6 | 668.8 | 298.3 | 91.1 | 95.4 | 24.6 | 5.8 | 2.1 | |
Median (mg/kg) | 14,496.0 | 9992.5 | 751.7 | 320.2 | 173.6 | 47.0 | 84.0 | 41.5 | 58.7 | 9.0 | 3.6 | 1.4 | |
Arithmetical mean (AM) (mg/kg) | 15,508.1 | 10,129.1 | 835.7 | 347.0 | 214.4 | 84.8 | 110.2 | 49.3 | 60.1 | 10.3 | 3.7 | 1.4 | |
Geometrical mean (GM) (mg/kg) | 14,824.1 | 9815.4 | 789.4 | 335.3 | 196.6 | 58.2 | 97.6 | 47.4 | 58.2 | 9.7 | 3.6 | 1.4 | |
Standard deviation (SD) | 5000.6 | 2628.9 | 314.0 | 93.0 | 106.0 | 134.2 | 64.7 | 15.7 | 15.8 | 4.2 | 1.0 | 0.3 | |
Standard Error (SE) | 1066.1 | 560.5 | 66.9 | 19.8 | 22.6 | 28.6 | 13.8 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.1 | |
Coefficient of variation (CV, %) | 32.2 | 26.0 | 37.6 | 26.8 | 49.5 | 158.3 | 58.7 | 31.8 | 26.3 | 41.3 | 27.9 | 20.8 | |
95% confidence limit value (C95%UCL) | 17,725.2 | 11,294.7 | 974.9 | 388.2 | 261.4 | 144.3 | 138.9 | 56.3 | 67.1 | 12.2 | 4.2 | 1.6 | |
Crustal background value [42,43] | 56,300.0 | 82,300.0 | 70.0 | 950.0 | 55.0 | 100.0 | 12.5 | 75.0 | 135.0 | 25.0 | 1.8 | 0.2 | |
Local background soil value [45] | 18,500.0 | - | 81.0 | 520.0 | 20.2 | 41.0 | 15.2 | 22.0 | 34.9 | 4.6 | 2.3 | 0.4 |
Location | Concentration | Fe | Al | Zn | Mn | Cu | Pb | Cr | Ni | As | Co | V | Cd | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Saudi Arabia (Jubail) | Average | 10,797.9 | 5662.8 | 764.1 | 386.0 | 160.9 | 51.2 | 45.1 | 43.7 | 4.3 | 4.6 | 28.5 | 1.1 | Present study |
Median | 11,116.0 | 4932.5 | 768.1 | 370.0 | 131.7 | 33.8 | 47.1 | 45.5 | 4.6 | 4.1 | 28.3 | 1.0 | ||
Saudi Arabia (Dammam metropolitan) | Average | 11,138.2 | 7469.0 | 832.3 | 271.5 | 208.6 | 54.3 | 50.6 | 48.1 | 4.5 | 6.6 | 32.7 | 1.2 | Present study |
Median | 11,426.0 | 7675.5 | 781.0 | 284.1 | 222.9 | 40.0 | 47.7 | 46.2 | 4.6 | 6.4 | 33.8 | 1.2 | ||
Saudi Arabia (Jeddah) | Average | 15,508.1 | 10,129.1 | 835.7 | 347.0 | 214.4 | 110.2 | 84.8 | 49.3 | 3.7 | 10.3 | 60.1 | 1.4 | Present study |
Median | 14,496.0 | 9992.5 | 751.7 | 320.2 | 173.6 | 84.0 | 47.0 | 41.5 | 3.6 | 9.0 | 58.7 | 1.4 | ||
Kuwait | Average | 14,453 | 12,697 | 784.0 | 441.0 | 209.0 | 158.0 | 90.0 | 56.0 | 13.0 | 12.5 | Al-Harbi et al. [67] | ||
Slovenia (Maribor) | Median | - | - | 716.0 | 306.0 | 140.0 | 69.0 | 65.0 | 38.0 | 4.1 | 6.2 | 17.0 | 1.2 | Gabersek and Gosar [86] |
Canada (Toronto) | Median | - | - | 386.0 | 58.0 | 136.0 | 36.0 | 42.0 | 23.0 | - | - | - | 1.7 | Al Hejami et al. [87] |
China (Tongling) | Average | 27,111.2 | - | 978.9 | - | 323.1 | 279.2 | 62.3 | 52.7 | - | 4.3 | - | 5.1 | Yangbing et al. [88] |
Pakistan (Lahore) | Average | - | - | 1053.0 | - | 116.0 | 230.0 | 194.0 | 53.6 | 7.5 | - | 36.7 | 5.2 | Rehman et al. [89] |
Nepal (viz. Kathmandu, Pokhara, Birgunj, and Biratnagar) | Median | 838.0 | - | 1260.0 | 1650.0 | 275.0 | 233.0 | 231.0 | 122.0 | 3.0 | 28.1 | - | 1.8 | Yadav et al. [90] |
Iran (Shiraz) | Average | 16,945.5 | - | 258.8 | 288.9 | 40.0 | 258.8 | 172.8 | 50.1 | 2.8 | 6.4 | - | 1.0 | Moghtaderi et al. [91] |
Saudi Arabia (Jeddah) | Average | - | - | 524.0 | 270.0 | 126.0 | - | 61.4 | 43.2 | - | 10.7 | - | 0.9 | Albar et al. [75] |
Qatar (Doha city) | Average | 20,504 | 19,812 | 824.3 | 369.8 | 192.9 | 65.3 | 91.8 | 68.7 | 7.2 | 12.3 | 52.1 | 0.7 | Mahfouz et al. [92] |
Saudi Arabia (Jeddah) | Average | 8752.0 | - | 343.0 | 392.0 | 88.0 | 121.0 | 40.0 | 36.0 | 8.0 | 8.1 | 43.9 | 2.1 | Alghamdi et al. [21] |
Nigeria (southern Nigeria) | Median | 11,300 | 5430.0 | 1110.0 | 161.0 | 161.0 | 207.0 | 40.1 | 25.3 | - | 3.8 | - | 3.8 | Iwegbue et al. [93] |
Australia (Sydney) | Average | - | - | 1876.0 | 220.0 | 272.0 | 299.0 | 90.0 | 50.9 | 17.6 | - | - | Doyi et al. [94] | |
Jordan (Jordanian) | Average | 8400.0 | 700.0 | 4500.0 | - | 500.0 | - | 90.0 | 40.0 | - | 2.0 | - | 5.0 | Arar et al. [95] |
Portugal (Estarreja) | Mean | - | 11,500 | 2090.0 | 188.0 | 311.0 | 380.0 | 63.0 | 13.0 | 13.0 | 5.1 | 18.0 | 1.4 | Plumejeaud et al. [96] |
Iran (Shiraz Shiraz megacity) | Average | - | - | 233.3 | - | 40.0 | 258.9 | 172.8 | 50.1 | 2.8 | 6.4 | - | 1.0 | Moghtaderi et al. [97] |
Saudi Arabia (Riyadh) | Average | - | - | 94.4 | 90.0 | 71.8 | 24.8 | 27.0 | 20.3 | - | 2.0 | 15.4 | - | El-Mubarak et al. [98] |
Egypt (Cairo) | Average | 20,818.0 | 9092.0 | 419.0 | 425.0 | 116.6 | 99.3 | 48.6 | 30.1 | 4.0 | 9.0 | 45.7 | 1.0 | Gad et al. [99] |
Non-Cancer Risks | Children | Adults | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PHEs | HQing | HQinh | HQdermal | HI | HQing | HQinh | HQdermal | HI |
Fe | 1.8 × 10−3 | 1.9 × 10−3 | 3.4 × 10−4 | 4.0 × 10−3 | 1.9 × 10−4 | 6.9 × 10−4 | 7.0 × 10−4 | 1.6 × 10−3 |
Al | 7.9 × 10−3 | 4.4 × 10−7 | 1.3 × 10−5 | 7.9 × 10−3 | 8.4 × 10−4 | 1.6 × 10−7 | 2.6 × 10−5 | 8.7 × 10−4 |
Zn | 3.5 × 10−3 | 9.9 × 10−8 | 2.8 × 10−5 | 3.6 × 10−3 | 3.8 × 10−4 | 3.6 × 10−8 | 5.8 × 10−5 | 4.4 × 10−4 |
Mn | 1.1 × 10−2 | 1.1 × 10−3 | 4.7 × 10−4 | 1.3 × 10−2 | 1.2 × 10−3 | 3.8 × 10−4 | 9.5 × 10−4 | 2.6 × 10−3 |
Cu | 5.6 × 10−3 | 1.6 × 10−7 | 3.0 × 10−5 | 5.6 × 10−3 | 6.0 × 10−4 | 5.6 × 10−8 | 6.1 × 10−5 | 6.6 × 10−4 |
Cr | 2.1 × 10−2 | 6.1 × 10−5 | 2.0 × 10−3 | 2.3 × 10−2 | 2.2 × 10−3 | 2.2 × 10−5 | 4.1 × 10−3 | 6.3 × 10−3 |
Pb | 2.0 × 10−2 | 5.7 × 10−7 | 2.2 × 10−4 | 2.1 × 10−2 | 2.2 × 10−3 | 2.0 × 10−7 | 4.4 × 10−4 | 2.6 × 10−3 |
Ni | 3.0 × 10−3 | 8.3 × 10−8 | 1.8 × 10−5 | 3.1 × 10−3 | 3.2 × 10−4 | 3.0 × 10−8 | 3.7 × 10−5 | 3.6 × 10−4 |
V | 5.7 × 10−3 | 1.6 × 10−7 | 9.1 × 10−4 | 6.6 × 10−3 | 6.1 × 10−4 | 5.7 × 10−8 | 1.8 × 10−3 | 2.5 × 10−3 |
Co | 3.2 × 10−4 | 3.1 × 10−5 | 6.4 × 10−7 | 3.5 × 10−4 | 3.4 × 10−5 | 1.1 × 10−5 | 1.3 × 10−6 | 4.7 × 10−5 |
As | 2.0 × 10−2 | 5.6 × 10−7 | 7.8 × 10−5 | 2.0 × 10−2 | 2.1 × 10−3 | 2.0 × 10−7 | 1.6 × 10−4 | 2.3 × 10−3 |
Cd | 1.5 × 10−3 | 4.2 × 10−8 | 2.4 × 10−4 | 1.8 × 10−3 | 1.6 × 10−4 | 1.5 × 10−8 | 4.9 × 10−4 | 6.5 × 10−4 |
Total | 1.0 × 10−1 | 3.1 × 10−3 | 4.3 × 10−3 | 1.1 × 10−1 | 1.1 × 10−2 | 1.1 × 10−3 | 8.9 × 10−3 | 2.1 × 10−2 |
Cancer Risks | Children | Adults | ||||||
PHEs | ILCRing | ILCRinh | ILCRdermal | CR | ILCRing | ILCRinh | ILCRdermal | CR |
Cr | 1.27 × 10−6 | 2.97 × 10−9 | 8.09 × 10−8 | 1.4 × 10−6 | 9.10 × 10−7 | 7.18 × 10−9 | 1.11 × 10−6 | 2.0 × 10−6 |
Pb | 2.44 × 10−8 | 3.37 × 10−12 | 3.90 × 10−11 | 2.4 × 10−8 | 1.75 × 10−8 | 8.15 × 10−12 | 5.33 × 10−10 | 1.8 × 10−8 |
Ni | 4.17 × 10−6 | 5.76 × 10−11 | 1.67 × 10−7 | 4.3 × 10−6 | 2.99 × 10−6 | 1.39 × 10−10 | 2.28 × 10−6 | 5.3 × 10−6 |
Co | 7.08 × 10−11 | 7.1 × 10−11 | 1.71 × 10−10 | 1.7 × 10−10 | ||||
As | 3.62 × 10−7 | 1.01 × 10−11 | 2.89 × 10−9 | 3.6 × 10−7 | 2.59 × 10−7 | 2.44 × 10−11 | 3.95 × 10−8 | 3.0 × 10−7 |
Cd | 2.32 × 10−8 | 6.49 × 10−13 | 5.95 × 10−10 | 2.4 × 10−8 | 1.66 × 10−8 | 1.57 × 10−12 | 8.13 × 10−9 | 2.5 × 10−8 |
Total | 5.9 × 10−6 | 3.1 × 10−9 | 2.5 × 10−7 | 6.1 × 10−6 | 4.2 × 10−6 | 7.5 × 10−9 | 3.4 × 10−6 | 7.6 × 10−6 |
Non-Cancer Risks | Children | Adults | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PHEs | HQing | HQinh | HQdermal | HI | HQing | HQinh | HQdermal | HI |
Fe | 1.8 × 10−3 | 2.0 × 10−3 | 3.5 × 10−4 | 4.2 × 10−3 | 2.0 × 10−4 | 7.1 × 10−4 | 7.2 × 10−4 | 1.6 × 10−3 |
Al | 1.0 × 10−2 | 5.8 × 10−7 | 1.7 × 10−5 | 1.0 × 10−2 | 1.1 × 10−3 | 2.1 × 10−7 | 3.4 × 10−5 | 1.1 × 10−3 |
Zn | 3.9 × 10−3 | 1.1 × 10−7 | 3.1 × 10−5 | 3.9 × 10−3 | 4.1 × 10−4 | 3.9 × 10−8 | 6.3 × 10−5 | 4.8 × 10−4 |
Mn | 8.0 × 10−3 | 7.4 × 10−4 | 3.3 × 10−4 | 9.1 × 10−3 | 8.6 × 10−4 | 2.7 × 10−4 | 6.7 × 10−4 | 1.8 × 10−3 |
Cu | 7.2 × 10−3 | 2.0 × 10−7 | 3.9 × 10−5 | 7.3 × 10−3 | 7.8 × 10−4 | 7.3 × 10−8 | 7.9 × 10−5 | 8.5 × 10−4 |
Cr | 2.3 × 10−2 | 6.9 × 10−5 | 2.2 × 10−3 | 2.6 × 10−2 | 2.5 × 10−3 | 2.5 × 10−5 | 4.6 × 10−3 | 7.1 × 10−3 |
Pb | 2.2 × 10−2 | 6.0 × 10−7 | 2.3 × 10−4 | 2.2 × 10−2 | 2.3 × 10−3 | 2.2 × 10−7 | 4.7 × 10−4 | 2.8 × 10−3 |
Ni | 3.3 × 10−3 | 9.1 × 10−8 | 2.0 × 10−5 | 3.4 × 10−3 | 3.6 × 10−4 | 3.3 × 10−8 | 4.0 × 10−5 | 4.0 × 10−4 |
V | 6.5 × 10−3 | 1.8 × 10−7 | 1.0 × 10−3 | 7.5 × 10−3 | 6.9 × 10−4 | 6.5 × 10−8 | 2.1 × 10−3 | 2.8 × 10−3 |
Co | 4.6 × 10−4 | 4.5 × 10−5 | 9.1 × 10−7 | 5.0 × 10−4 | 4.9 × 10−5 | 1.6 × 10−5 | 1.9 × 10−6 | 6.7 × 10−5 |
As | 2.1 × 10−2 | 5.9 × 10−7 | 8.2 × 10−5 | 2.1 × 10−2 | 2.3 × 10−3 | 2.1 × 10−7 | 1.7 × 10−4 | 2.4 × 10−3 |
Cd | 1.7 × 10−3 | 4.7 × 10−8 | 2.7 × 10−4 | 2.0 × 10−3 | 1.8 × 10−4 | 1.7 × 10−8 | 5.5 × 10−4 | 7.3 × 10−4 |
Total | 1.1 × 10−1 | 2.8 × 10−3 | 4.7 × 10−3 | 1.2 × 10−1 | 1.2 × 10−2 | 1.0 × 10−3 | 9.5 × 10−3 | 2.2 × 10−2 |
Cancer Risks | Children | Adults | ||||||
PHEs | ILCRing | ILCRinh | ILCRdermal | CR | ILCRing | ILCRinh | ILCRdermal | CR |
Cr | 1.42 × 10−6 | 3.34 × 10−9 | 9.07 × 10−8 | 1.5 × 10−6 | 1.02 × 10−6 | 8.05 × 10−9 | 1.24 × 10−6 | 2.3 × 10−6 |
Pb | 2.59 × 10−8 | 3.58 × 10−12 | 4.14 × 10−11 | 2.6 × 10−8 | 1.86 × 10−8 | 8.64 × 10−12 | 5.65 × 10−10 | 1.9 × 10−8 |
Ni | 4.59 × 10−6 | 6.34 × 10−11 | 1.83 × 10−7 | 4.8 × 10−6 | 3.29 × 10−6 | 1.53 × 10−10 | 2.50 × 10−6 | 5.8 × 10−6 |
Co | 1.01 × 10−10 | 1.0 × 10−10 | 2.44 × 10−10 | 2.4 × 10−10 | ||||
As | 3.83 × 10−7 | 1.07 × 10−11 | 3.06 × 10−9 | 3.9 × 10−7 | 2.75 × 10−7 | 2.59 × 10−11 | 4.18 × 10−8 | 3.2 × 10−7 |
Cd | 2.59 × 10−8 | 7.22 × 10−13 | 6.63 × 10−10 | 2.7 × 10−8 | 1.85 × 10−8 | 1.74 × 10−12 | 9.06 × 10−9 | 2.8 × 10−8 |
Total | 6.5 × 10−6 | 3.5 × 10−9 | 2.8 × 10−7 | 6.7 × 10−6 | 4.6 × 10−6 | 8.5 × 10−9 | 3.8 × 10−6 | 8.4 × 10−6 |
Non-Cancer Risks | Children | Adults | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PHEs | HQing | HQinh | HQdermal | HI | HQing | HQinh | HQdermal | HI |
Fe | 2.6 × 10−3 | 2.7 × 10−3 | 4.9 × 10−4 | 5.8 × 10−3 | 2.7 × 10−4 | 9.9 × 10−4 | 1.0 × 10−3 | 2.3 × 10−3 |
Al | 1.4 × 10−2 | 7.9 × 10−7 | 2.3 × 10−5 | 1.4 × 10−2 | 1.5 × 10−3 | 2.8 × 10−7 | 4.6 × 10−5 | 1.6 × 10−3 |
Zn | 3.9 × 10−3 | 1.1 × 10−7 | 3.1 × 10−5 | 3.9 × 10−3 | 4.1 × 10−4 | 3.9 × 10−8 | 6.3 × 10−5 | 4.8 × 10−4 |
Mn | 1.0 × 10−2 | 9.5 × 10−4 | 4.2 × 10−4 | 1.2 × 10−2 | 1.1 × 10−3 | 3.4 × 10−4 | 8.5 × 10−4 | 2.3 × 10−3 |
Cu | 7.4 × 10−3 | 2.1 × 10−7 | 4.0 × 10−5 | 7.5 × 10−3 | 8.0 × 10−4 | 7.5 × 10−8 | 8.1 × 10−5 | 8.8 × 10−4 |
Cr | 3.9 × 10−2 | 1.2 × 10−4 | 3.8 × 10−3 | 4.3 × 10−2 | 4.2 × 10−3 | 4.2 × 10−5 | 7.7 × 10−3 | 1.2 × 10−2 |
Pb | 4.4 × 10−2 | 1.2 × 10−6 | 4.7 × 10−4 | 4.4 × 10−2 | 4.7 × 10−3 | 4.4 × 10−7 | 9.5 × 10−4 | 5.6 × 10−3 |
Ni | 3.4 × 10−3 | 9.3 × 10−8 | 2.0 × 10−5 | 3.4 × 10−3 | 3.7 × 10−4 | 3.4 × 10−8 | 4.1 × 10−5 | 4.1 × 10−4 |
V | 1.2 × 10−2 | 3.3 × 10−7 | 1.9 × 10−3 | 1.4 × 10−2 | 1.3 × 10−3 | 1.2 × 10−7 | 3.9 × 10−3 | 5.2 × 10−3 |
Co | 7.1 × 10−4 | 7.0 × 10−5 | 1.4 × 10−6 | 7.8 × 10−4 | 7.6 × 10−5 | 2.5 × 10−5 | 2.9 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−4 |
As | 1.7 × 10−2 | 4.8 × 10−7 | 6.7 × 10−5 | 1.7 × 10−2 | 1.8 × 10−3 | 1.7 × 10−7 | 1.4 × 10−4 | 2.0 × 10−3 |
Cd | 2.0 × 10−3 | 5.6 × 10−8 | 3.2 × 10−4 | 2.3 × 10−3 | 2.1 × 10−4 | 2.0 × 10−8 | 6.5 × 10−4 | 8.6 × 10−4 |
Total | 1.6 × 10−1 | 3.9 × 10−3 | 7.6 × 10−3 | 1.7 × 10−1 | 1.7 × 10−2 | 1.4 × 10−3 | 1.5 × 10−2 | 3.4 × 10−2 |
Cancer Risks | Children | Adults | ||||||
PHEs | ILCRing | ILCRinh | ILCRdermal | CR | ILCRing | ILCRinh | ILCRdermal | CR |
Cr | 2.39 × 10−6 | 5.59 × 10−9 | 1.52 × 10−7 | 2.5 × 10−6 | 1.71 × 10−6 | 1.35 × 10−8 | 2.08 × 10−6 | 3.8 × 10−6 |
Pb | 5.26 × 10−8 | 7.26 × 10−12 | 8.40 × 10−11 | 5.3 × 10−8 | 3.77 × 10−8 | 1.75 × 10−11 | 1.15 × 10−9 | 3.9 × 10−8 |
Ni | 4.71 × 10−6 | 6.51 × 10−11 | 1.88 × 10−7 | 4.9 × 10−6 | 3.38 × 10−6 | 1.57 × 10−10 | 2.57 × 10−6 | 5.9 × 10−6 |
Co | 1.58 × 10−10 | 1.6 × 10−10 | 3.82 × 10−10 | 3.8 × 10−10 | ||||
As | 3.14 × 10−7 | 8.77 × 10−12 | 2.51 × 10−9 | 3.2 × 10−7 | 2.25 × 10−7 | 2.12 × 10−11 | 3.42 × 10−8 | 2.6 × 10−7 |
Cd | 3.06 × 10−8 | 8.54 × 10−13 | 7.83 × 10−10 | 3.1 × 10−8 | 2.19 × 10−8 | 2.06 × 10−12 | 1.07 × 10−8 | 3.3 × 10−8 |
Total | 7.5 × 10−6 | 5.8 × 10−9 | 3.4 × 10−7 | 7.8 × 10−6 | 5.4 × 10−6 | 1.4 × 10−8 | 4.7 × 10−6 | 1.0 × 10−5 |
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Tawabini, B.; Al-Enazi, M.; Alghamdi, M.A.; Farahat, A.; Shemsi, A.M.; Al Sharif, M.Y.; Khoder, M.I. Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 2687. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032687
Tawabini B, Al-Enazi M, Alghamdi MA, Farahat A, Shemsi AM, Al Sharif MY, Khoder MI. Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(3):2687. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032687
Chicago/Turabian StyleTawabini, Bassam, Mubarak Al-Enazi, Mansour A. Alghamdi, Ashraf Farahat, Ahsan M. Shemsi, Marwan Y. Al Sharif, and Mamdouh I. Khoder. 2023. "Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 3: 2687. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032687