Did Children in Single-Parent Households Have a Higher Probability of Emotional Instability during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study in Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Outcome (Emotional Instability)
2.4. Exposure (Single-Parent)
2.5. Covariates
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics
3.2. Children’s Emotional Instability
3.3. Stratifying by Environment and Daily Activities
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Daily Activities, % | Two-Parent | Single-Parent | p-Value 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Sleep ≥ 8 h | 81.9 | 79.7 | 0.32 |
Study ≥ 1 h | 49.5 | 50.9 | <0.01 | |
Physical activity ≥ 30 min | 53.5 | 40.0 | <0.01 | |
Reading ≥ 30 min | 39.3 | 33.3 | <0.01 | |
Watching TV/online entertainment ≥ 2 h | 44.4 | 50.8 | <0.01 | |
Gaming ≥ 1 h | 43.0 | 53.1 | <0.01 | |
0–5 years old | Sleep ≥ 8 h | 88.7 | 83.5 | 0.14 |
Study ≥ 1 h | 7.4 | 5.0 | 0.07 | |
Physical activity ≥ 30 min | 67.0 | 54.0 | <0.01 | |
Reading ≥ 30 min | 35.4 | 24.5 | 0.04 | |
Watching TV/online entertainment ≥ 2 h | 37.2 | 30.2 | 0.22 | |
Gaming ≥ 1 h | 9.6 | 14.4 | 0.13 | |
6–9 years old | Sleep ≥ 8 h | 87.8 | 89.2 | 0.30 |
Study ≥ 1 h | 59.0 | 54.9 | 0.54 | |
Physical activity ≥ 30 min | 56.1 | 42.1 | <0.01 | |
Reading ≥ 30 min | 40.4 | 34.4 | 0.27 | |
Watching TV/online entertainment ≥ 2 h | 40.9 | 44.6 | 0.55 | |
Gaming ≥ 1 h | 46.2 | 49.7 | 0.62 | |
10–12 years old | Sleep ≥ 8 h | 80.0 | 79.9 | 0.23 |
Study ≥ 1 h | 75.3 | 67.0 | <0.01 | |
Physical activity ≥ 30 min | 44.8 | 36.9 | 0.01 | |
Reading ≥ 30 min | 45.2 | 38.4 | 0.04 | |
Watching TV/online entertainment ≥ 2 h | 50.0 | 57.0 | 0.07 | |
Gaming ≥ 1 h | 66.8 | 69.9 | 0.47 | |
13–14 years old | Sleep ≥ 8 h | 52.7 | 63.1 | 0.07 |
Study ≥ 1 h | 72.0 | 58.4 | 0.01 | |
Physical activity ≥ 30 min | 33.0 | 30.2 | 0.83 | |
Reading ≥ 30 min | 30.5 | 30.9 | 0.98 | |
Watching TV/online entertainment ≥ 2 h | 58.4 | 66.4 | 0.14 | |
Gaming ≥ 1 h | 62.7 | 62.4 | 1.00 |
Respondents’ Gender | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Total | ||
(n = 1322) | (n = 1281) | (n = 2603) | p | |
Age, mean (SD) | 42 (7.5) | 39.4 (7) | 40.7 (7.4) | <0.01 3 |
Educational attainment, % | <0.01 4 | |||
High school or lower | 16.0 | 23.1 | 19.5 | |
College or higher | 83.8 | 76.8 | 80.4 | |
Household income level, % 1 | <0.01 4 | |||
Higher | 28.1 | 18.4 | 23.3 | |
Intermediate | 47.8 | 39.8 | 43.9 | |
Lower | 17.5 | 26.5 | 21.9 | |
Not answered | 6.7 | 15.2 | 10.9 | |
Number of children, mean (SD) | 1.88 (0.74) | 1.82 (0.76) | 1.85 (0.75) | 0.02 3 |
Number of family member, % 2 | 0.04 4 | |||
≤3 persons | 30.1 | 34.7 | 32.3 | |
4 persons | 48.7 | 45.1 | 46.9 | |
≥5 persons | 21.2 | 20.2 | 20.7 | |
Employment status, % | <0.01 4 | |||
Employer | 6.3 | 0.9 | 3.6 | |
Self-employed | 5.4 | 2.0 | 3.8 | |
Regular employee | 84.9 | 22.8 | 54.4 | |
Non-regular employee | 2.1 | 32.6 | 17.1 | |
Unemployed | 1.2 | 41.6 | 21.1 | |
Living with a grandparent, % | 8.7 | 6.7 | 7.7 | 0.06 4 |
Total Number | Prevalence | Crude PR (95%CI) | Adjusted PR (95%CI) 1 | p-Interaction 2 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Violence towards others | ||||||||
Children’s age | ||||||||
0–5 years old | Reference | |||||||
Two-parent | 1557 | 4.7% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 271 | 6.3% | 1.37 (0.83–2.25) | 1.43 (0.79–2.60) | ||||
6–9 years old | 0.37 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1028 | 6.9% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 275 | 6.5% | 0.99 (0.61–1.62) | 0.99 (0.59–1.68) | ||||
10–12 years old | 0.71 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1054 | 4.7% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 382 | 5.8% | 1.21 (0.75–1.97) | 1.01 (0.60–1.70) | ||||
13–14 years old | 0.32 | |||||||
Two-parent | 377 | 3.4% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 213 | 2.8% | 0.83 (0.32–2.15) | 0.88 (0.36–2.18) | ||||
Abusive language towards others | ||||||||
Children’s age | ||||||||
0–5 years old | Reference | |||||||
Two-parent | 1557 | 5.8% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 271 | 8.5% | 1.50 (0.98–2.28) | 1.29 (0.80–2.09) | ||||
6–9 years old | 0.29 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1028 | 14.8% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 275 | 16.0% | 1.12 (0.83–1.51) | 0.99 (0.71–1.37) | ||||
10–12 years old | 0.70 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1054 | 14.6% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 382 | 19.6% | 1.35 (1.06–1.71) | 1.21 (0.93–1.57) | ||||
13–14 years old | 0.82 | |||||||
Two-parent | 377 | 10.1% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 213 | 13.6% | 1.38 (0.89–2.15) | 1.45 (0.92–2.29) | ||||
Demotivation to study | ||||||||
Children’s age | ||||||||
0–5 years old | Reference | |||||||
Two-parent | 1557 | 2.8% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 271 | 2.6% | 0.96 (0.44–2.07) | 0.85 (0.39–1.85) | ||||
6–9 years old | 0.76 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1028 | 25.8% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 275 | 27.6% | 1.08 (0.88–1.32) | 1.02 (0.82–1.27) | ||||
10–12 years old | 0.51 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1054 | 33.5% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 382 | 42.1% | 1.25 (1.09–1.42) | 1.25 (1.08–1.44) | ||||
13–14 years old | 0.47 | |||||||
Two-parent | 377 | 34.0% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 213 | 42.3% | 1.26 (1.05–1.52) | 1.34 (1.10–1.62) | ||||
Absenteeism | ||||||||
Children’s age | ||||||||
0–5 years old | Reference | |||||||
Two-parent | 1557 | 1.3% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 271 | 2.2% | 1.66 (0.68–4.04) | 1.28 (0.56–2.91) | ||||
6–9 years old | 0.71 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1028 | 3.7% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 275 | 4.7% | 1.33 (0.73–2.46) | 1.20 (0.60–2.41) | ||||
10–12 years old | 0.94 | |||||||
Two-parent | 1054 | 3.6% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 382 | 6.0% | 1.66 (1.00–2.73) | 1.51 (0.79–2.91) | ||||
13–14 years old | 0.23 | |||||||
Two-parent | 377 | 2.9% | Reference | Reference | ||||
Single-parent | 213 | 9.4% | 3.20 (1.57–6.50) | 3.12 (1.44–6.78) |
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Family Type | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Two-Parent | Single-Parent | Total | ||
(n = 2603) | (n = 762) | (n = 3365) | p | |
Response from mother, % | 49.2 | 90.0 | 58.5 | <0.01 3 |
Age, mean (SD) | 40.7 (7.4) | 39.7 (6.7) | 40.5 (7.2) | <0.01 4 |
Educational attainment, % | <0.01 3 | |||
High school or lower | 19.5 | 32.0 | 22.3 | |
College or higher | 80.4 | 67.6 | 77.5 | |
Household income level, % 1 | <0.01 3 | |||
Higher | 23.3 | 8.8 | 20.0 | |
Intermediate | 43.9 | 17.2 | 37.8 | |
Lower | 21.9 | 60.6 | 30.7 | |
Not answered | 10.9 | 13.4 | 11.4 | |
Number of children, mean (SD) | 1.85 (0.75) | 1.57 (0.75) | 1.79 (0.76) | <0.01 4 |
Number of family member, % 2 | <0.01 3 | |||
≤3 persons | 32.3 | 65.4 | 39.8 | |
4 persons | 46.9 | 18.0 | 40.4 | |
≥5 persons | 20.7 | 16.7 | 19.8 | |
Employment status, % | <0.01 3 | |||
Employer | 3.6 | 2.9 | 3.5 | |
Self-employed | 3.8 | 4.3 | 3.9 | |
Regular employee | 54.4 | 52.2 | 53.9 | |
Non-regular employee | 17.1 | 32.8 | 20.7 | |
Unemployed | 21.1 | 7.7 | 18.1 | |
Living with a grandparent, % | 7.7 | 32.4 | 13.3 | <0.01 3 |
Children’s age group, % 5 | <0.01 3 | |||
0–5 years old | 30.7 | 18.2 | 27.9 | |
6–9 years old | 28.1 | 25.6 | 27.5 | |
10–12 years old | 30.5 | 36.6 | 31.9 | |
13–14 years old | 10.7 | 19.6 | 12.7 | |
School/nursery closure, % | 0.07 3 | |||
Open | 12.3 | 13.5 | 12.6 | |
Closed | 76.0 | 77.7 | 76.3 | |
Not answered | 11.7 | 8.8 | 11.1 | |
Online education | 0.41 3 | |||
No | 65.8 | 67.5 | 66.2 | |
Yes | 31.8 | 30.8 | 31.6 | |
Not answered | 2.4 | 1.7 | 2.3 | |
Childcare by others, % | <0.01 3 | |||
No | 20.2 | 27.2 | 21.8 | |
Yes | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.8 | |
Not answered | 7.1 | 5.4 | 6.7 | |
Extracurricular activity participation | ||||
cram school, % | 0.56 3 | |||
No | 17.6 | 17.5 | 17.6 | |
Yes | 1.6 | 1.0 | 1.5 | |
Not answered | 6.4 | 4.2 | 5.9 | |
Sport/hobby lessons, % | 0.37 3 | |||
No | 81.1 | 83.1 | 81.5 | |
Yes | 17.9 | 16.3 | 17.6 | |
Not answered | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.9 | |
Daily activities, % | ||||
Sleep: ≥8 h | 81.9 | 79.7 | 81.4 | 0.32 3 |
Study: ≥1 h | 49.5 | 50.9 | 49.8 | <0.01 3 |
Physical activity: ≥30 min | 53.5 | 40.0 | 50.5 | <0.01 3 |
Reading: ≥30 min | 39.3 | 33.3 | 37.9 | <0.01 3 |
Watching TV/online entertainment: ≥2 h | 44.4 | 50.8 | 45.9 | <0.01 3 |
Game: ≥1 h | 43.0 | 53.1 | 45.3 | <0.01 3 |
Total Number | Prevalence | Crude PR (95%CI) | Adjusted PR (95% CI) 1 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emotional instability | |||||
Two-parent | 2603 | 17.8% | Reference | Reference | |
Single-parent | 762 | 23.1% | 1.30 (1.11–1.51) | 1.26 (1.07–1.49) | |
Violence towards others | |||||
Two-parent | 2603 | 6.7% | Reference | Reference | |
Single-parent | 762 | 7.1% | 1.06 (0.79–1.42) | 1.01 (0.74–1.38) | |
Abusive language towards others | |||||
Two-parent | 2603 | 14.3% | Reference | Reference | |
Single-parent | 762 | 19.0% | 1.35 (1.13–1.60) | 1.23 (1.02–1.49) | |
Demotivation to study | |||||
Two-parent | 2603 | 26.2% | Reference | Reference | |
Single-parent | 762 | 35.8% | 1.35 (1.21–1.51) | 1.37 (1.22–1.55) | |
Absenteeism | |||||
Two-parent | 2603 | 3.6% | Reference | Reference | |
Single-parent | 762 | 6.8% | 1.83 (1.32–2.54) | 1.72 (1.17–2.53) |
Children’s Age Group | Total Number | Prevalence of Emotional Instability | Crude PR (95%CI) | Adjusted PR (95% CI) 1 | p-Interaction 2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 years old | Reference | |||||
Two-parent | 1557 | 6.9% | Reference | Reference | ||
Single-parent | 271 | 8.5% | 1.22 (0.81–1.85) | 1.13 (0.72–1.77) | ||
6–9 years old | 0.49 | |||||
Two-parent | 1028 | 15.1% | Reference | Reference | ||
Single-parent | 275 | 15.3% | 1.02 (0.75–1.37) | 0.93 (0.67–1.30) | ||
10–12 years old | 0.74 | |||||
Two-parent | 1054 | 14.3% | Reference | Reference | ||
Single-parent | 382 | 18.6% | 1.34 (1.04–1.71) | 1.20 (0.91–1.57) | ||
13–14 years old | 0.54 | |||||
Two-parent | 377 | 13.5% | Reference | Reference | ||
Single-parent | 213 | 18.8% | 1.47 (1.02–2.11) | 1.68 (1.13–2.49) |
Total Number | Prevalence of Emotional Instability | Crude PR (95%CI) | Adjusted PR (95%CI) 1 | p-Interaction 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
School/nursery | 0.87 | ||||||
Open | |||||||
Two-parent | 391 | 7.7% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 120 | 10.0% | 1.25 (0.66–2.35) | 1.03 (0.51–2.08) | |||
Closed | |||||||
Two-parent | 2518 | 15.6% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 781 | 19.5% | 1.29 (1.10–1.52) | 1.24 (1.04–1.48) | |||
Online education | 0.83 | ||||||
No | |||||||
Two-parent | 2844 | 9.3% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 816 | 12.6% | 1.30 (1.06–1.59) | 1.25 (1.00–1.56) | |||
Yes | |||||||
Two-parent | 1027 | 18.2% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 295 | 24.4% | 1.36 (1.08–1.71) | 1.31 (1.02–1.69) | |||
Childcare by others | 0.42 | ||||||
No | |||||||
Two-parent | 3194 | 9.9% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 833 | 13.1% | 1.29 (1.06–1.57) | 1.28 (1.04–1.58) | |||
Yes | |||||||
Two-parent | 676 | 20.7% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 273 | 23.1% | 1.14 (0.89–1.47) | 1.03 (0.78–1.37) | |||
Cram school | 0.89 | ||||||
No | |||||||
Two-parent | 3303 | 10.6% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 940 | 13.9% | 1.27 (1.06–1.52) | 1.27 (1.04–1.55) | |||
Yes | |||||||
Two-parent | 584 | 19.2% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 172 | 25.0% | 1.32 (0.99–1.78) | 1.14 (0.83–1.56) | |||
Sport/hobby lessons | 0.98 | ||||||
No | |||||||
Two-parent | 3338 | 10.4% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 972 | 13.9% | 1.30 (1.09–1.55) | 1.28 (1.05–1.55) | |||
Yes | |||||||
Two-parent | 576 | 20.0% | Reference | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 144 | 27.1% | 1.28 (0.94–1.73) | 1.21 (0.87–1.67) |
Emotional Instability | Total Number | Prevalence of Emotional Instability | Adjusted PR (95%CI) 1 | p-Interaction 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sleep | 0.07 | |||||
<8 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 422 | 18.2% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 137 | 30.7% | 1.66 (1.15–2.40) | |||
≥8 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 2133 | 17.9% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 607 | 21.4% | 1.16 (0.96–1.40) | |||
Study | 0.47 | |||||
<1 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 803 | 19.2% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 288 | 25.7% | 1.38 (0.98–1.94) | |||
≥1 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 1289 | 19.2% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 388 | 23.5% | 1.21 (0.90–1.62) | |||
Physical activity | 0.80 | |||||
<30 min | ||||||
Two-parent | 1101 | 20.0% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 430 | 24.4% | 1.31 (0.98–1.74) | |||
≥30 min | ||||||
Two-parent | 1393 | 16.8% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 305 | 21.6% | 1.27 (0.91–1.78) | |||
Reading | 0.53 | |||||
<30 min | ||||||
Two-parent | 1486 | 17.7% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 482 | 22.2% | 1.36 (1.03–1.78) | |||
≥30 min | ||||||
Two-parent | 1022 | 18.8% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 254 | 26.0% | 1.36 (0.96–1.92) | |||
Watching TV/online entertainment | 0.15 | |||||
<2 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 1364 | 15.2% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 351 | 16.5% | 1.11 (0.79–1.57) | |||
≥2 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 1156 | 21.4% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 387 | 28.9% | 1.43 (1.07–1.89) | |||
Game | 0.18 | |||||
<1 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 1396 | 15.8% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 331 | 17.2% | 1.08 (0.77–1.52) | |||
≥1 h | ||||||
Two-parent | 1120 | 20.8% | Reference | |||
Single-parent | 405 | 27.9% | 1.42 (1.06–1.89) |
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Naito, T.; Tomata, Y.; Otsuka, T.; Tsuno, K.; Tabuchi, T. Did Children in Single-Parent Households Have a Higher Probability of Emotional Instability during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study in Japan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4239. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074239
Naito T, Tomata Y, Otsuka T, Tsuno K, Tabuchi T. Did Children in Single-Parent Households Have a Higher Probability of Emotional Instability during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study in Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(7):4239. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074239
Chicago/Turabian StyleNaito, Takuto, Yasutake Tomata, Tatsui Otsuka, Kanami Tsuno, and Takahiro Tabuchi. 2022. "Did Children in Single-Parent Households Have a Higher Probability of Emotional Instability during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study in Japan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 7: 4239. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074239