The Wildman Programme—Rehabilitation and Reconnection with Nature for Men with Mental or Physical Health Problems—A Matched-Control Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Nature as Treatment
1.2. The Wildman Programme
1.3. Aim
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Venue
2.4. Intervention
2.4.1. Nature
2.4.2. Body
2.4.3. Mind
2.4.4. Community Spirit
2.5. Outcomes
2.5.1. Primary Outcome
- Physical health: 7 items.
- Psychological health: 6 items.
- Social relationships: 3 items.
- Environment: 8 items.
2.5.2. Secondary Outcomes
- The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) [68]: PSS examines how different situations affect feelings and perceived stress in daily living within the last month. The scale consists of 10 items in a five-point Likert Scale. The scores range from 0 to 4 for the questions 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 10. The scores of the questions 4, 5, 7, and 8 are reversed. The scores for each item are added to get a total. The individual scores on the PSS can range from 0 to 40. Higher scores indicate higher perceived stress. Scores ranging from 0 to 13 are considered as a low level of perceived stress, scores ranging from 14 to 26 are considered as a moderate level of perceived stress, and scores ranging from 27 to 40 are considered as a high level of perceived stress [68].
- The Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS) [69]: PRS measures, in 26 items, four different categories of self-experienced restitution related to spontaneous attention: fascination, being away, extent, and compatibility. The scale is used for measuring meditation practice and attention training in natural environments [70].
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Flow of Participants
3.2. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.3. Results of the Statistical Analysis
4. Discussion
4.1. Effects of the Wildman Programme
4.2. Appeal to Men
4.3. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample Characteristics | Control | Intervention | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
N | 39 | 114 | |
Age, mean (SD) | 57.55 (10.70) (n = 38) | 54.60 (13.67) (n = 109) | 0.23 |
Educational level (ISCED), n (%) | |||
Lower secondary or less | 6 (15.8%) | 18 (16.7%) | 0.95 |
Upper secondary | 13 (34.2%) | 39 (36.1%) | |
Short cycle tertiery/bachelor | 13 (34.2%) | 38 (35.2%) | |
Master’s or above | 6 (15.8%) | 13 (12.0%) | |
Currently employed, n (%) | |||
Unemployed | 3 (7.9%) | 20 (18.7%) | 0.13 |
Employed | 13 (34.2%) | 21 (19.6%) | |
In job training or education | 1 (2.6%) | 12 (11.2%) | |
Retired | 12 (31.6%) | 28 (26.2%) | |
Other | 9 (23.7%) | 26 (24.3%) | |
Cohabiting status, n (%) | |||
Alone | 8 (21.1%) | 28 (25.7%) | 0.57 |
Cohabiting | 30 (78.9%) | 81 (74.3%) | |
Children, n (%) | |||
Yes | 32 (84.2%) | 91 (83.5%) | 0.92 |
No | 6 (15.8%) | 18 (16.5%) | |
Referred from, n (%) | |||
General Practitioner (GP) | 12 (33.3%) | 8 (7.4%) | <0.001 |
Job centre | 3 (8.3%) | 38 (35.2%) | |
Other | 21 (58.3%) | 62 (57.4%) | |
Physical illness(es), n (%) | |||
Yes | 28 (75.7%) | 61 (57.0%) | 0.044 |
No | 9 (24.3%) | 46 (43.0%) | |
Psychological illness(es), n (%) | |||
Yes | 11 (28.9%) | 56 (52.8%) | 0.011 |
No | 27 (71.1%) | 50 (47.2%) | |
In treatment 1, n (%) | |||
Yes | 32 (88.9%) | 65 (63.1%) | 0.004 |
No | 4 (11.1%) | 38 (36.9%) | |
Contact with psychiatric hospital 2, n (%) | |||
Yes | 1 (3%) | 20 (22%) | 0.012 |
No | 32 (97%) | 70 (78%) | |
Medication 3, n (%) | |||
Yes | 30 (83.3%) | 74 (70.5%) | 0.13 |
No | 6 (16.7%) | 31 (29.5%) |
Intervention Group (Wildman Programme) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline, Mean (SD) | 9-Week Follow-Up, Mean (SD) | Difference Baseline to 9-Week Follow-Up, Mean (SD) 3 | Cohen’s d Baseline to 9-Week Follow-Up 4 | p-Value 1 | 6-Month Follow-Up, Mean (SD) | Difference Baseline to 6-Month Follow-Up, Mean (SD) 3 | Cohen’s d Baseline to 6-Month Follow-Up 4 | p-Value 2 | |
WHOQOL-BREF Physical domain | 13.41 (3.05) | 14.26 (2.76) | 0.84 (2.18) | 0.38 | 0.001 | 15.15 (2.73) | 1.32 (2.66) | 0.50 | 0.000 |
WHOQOL-BREF Psychological domain | 12.67 (3.28) | 13.38 (3.02) | 0.46 (1.87) | 0.24 | 0.029 | 14.43 (3.15) | 1.10 (2.84) | 0.39 | 0.005 |
WHOQOL-BREF Social domain | 11.74 (2.95) | 12.17 (2.53) | 0.22 (2.56) | 0.09 | 0.440 | 12.92 (2.59) | 0.90 (2.91) | 0.31 | 0.024 |
WHOQOL-BREF Environmental domain | 14.50 (2.04) | 14.96 (2.11) | 0.23 (1.59) | 0.15 | 0.191 | 15.32 (1.91) | 0.16 (1.63) | 0.10 | 0.470 |
PSS | 20.38 (7.36) | 16.46 (6.11) | −3.63 (5.13) | −0.71 | <0.001 | 14.70 (6.24) | −3.36 (7.31) | −0.46 | 0.001 |
PRS | 179.26 (35.56) | 195.27 (28.11) | 18.57 (27.14) | 0.68 | <0.001 | 195.37 (30.91) | 16.07 (31.41) | 0.51 | 0.002 |
Control group (TAU) | |||||||||
Baseline, mean (SD) | 9-week follow-up, mean (SD) | Difference baseline to 9-week follow-up, mean (SD) 3 | Cohen’s d baseline to 9-week follow-up 4 | p-value 1 | 6-month follow-up, mean (SD) | Difference baseline to 6-month follow-up, mean (SD) 3 | Cohen’s d baseline to 6-month follow-up 4 | p-value 2 | |
WHOQOL Physical domain | 14.22 (2.77) | 14.61 (2.77) | 0.03 (2.41) | 0.01 | 0.951 | 14.57 (3.37) | 0.15 (2.23) | 0.07 | 0.722 |
WHOQOL Psychological domain | 13.86 (3.32) | 14.54 (2.65) | 0.38 (2.31) | 0.16 | 0.351 | 14.39 (3.11) | 0.41 (2.44) | 0.17 | 0.369 |
WHOQOL Social domain | 12.03 (3.22) | 12.83 (2.79) | 0.63 (2.58) | 0.24 | 0.180 | 12.31 (2.96) | 0.22 (2.48) | 0.09 | 0.627 |
WHOQOL Environmental domain | 14.05 (2.68) | 14.94 (1.91) | 0.59 (1.84) | 0.32 | 0.076 | 14.52 (1.97) | 0.29 (1.75) | 0.16 | 0.374 |
PSS | 16.15 (7.49) | 13.03 (6.25) | −2.75 (4.54) | −0.61 | 0.002 | 14.50 (9.37) | −1.40 (7.83) | −0.18 | 0.335 |
Control Group (TAU) | Intervention Group (Wildman Programme) | Intervention vs. Control | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predicted Value (SD) | Predicted Mean Difference (SD) | CI (p-Value) | Predicted Value (SD) | Predicted Mean Difference (SD) | CI (p-Value) | Difference in PMD (SD) 1 | CI (p-Value) | ||
WHOQOL-BREF Physical domain | Baseline | 14.26 (0.46) | 13.41 (0.30) | ||||||
9-week follow-up | 14.48 (0.49) | 0.22 (0.46) | −0.69; 1.13 (0.636) | 14.38 (0.31) | 0.97 (0.25) | 0.49; 1.45 (0.0001) | 0.75 (0.53) | −0.28; 1.78 (0.1530) | |
6-month follow-up | 14.38 (0.57) | 0.12 (0.39) | −0.65; 0.89 (0.760) | 14.95 (0.34) | 1.54 (0.33) | 0.90; 2.18 (0.0000) | 1.42 (0.51) | 0.42; 2.42 (0.0056) | |
WHOQOL-BREF Psychological domain | Baseline | 13.30 (0.51) | 12.97 (0.27) | ||||||
9-week follow-up | 13.77 (0.43) | 0.48 (0.43) | 0.37; 1.32 (0.2691) | 13.46 (0.28) | 0.49 (0.22) | 0.07; 0.92 (0.0236) | 0.02 (0.48) | −0.93; 0.97 (0.9672) | |
6-month follow-up | 13.72 (0.54) | 0.42 (0.48) | −0.51; 1.35 (0.3732) | 13.91 (0.38) | 0.95 (0.35) | 0.26; 1.64 (0.0072) | 0.52 (0.59) | −0.63; 1.68 (0.3756) | |
WHOQOL-BREF Social domain | Baseline | 11.92 (0.52) | 11.92 (0.27) | ||||||
9-week follow-up | 12.56 (0.51) | 0.64 (0.47) | −0.27; 1.55 (0.1685) | 12.13 (0.26) | 0.21 (0.30) | −0.37; 0.79 (0.4794) | −0.43 (0.55) | −1.51; 0.65 (0.4353) | |
6-month follow-up | 12.06 (0.52) | 0.15 (0.41) | −0.65; 0.94 (0.7163) | 12.51 (0.34) | 0.60 (0.38) | −0.16; 1.35 (0.1203) | 0.45 (0.56) | −0.65; 1.55 (0.4239) | |
WHOQOL-BREF Environmental domain | Baseline | 13.94 (0.44) | 14.62 (0.19) | ||||||
9-week follow-up | 14.51 (0.38) | 0.57 (0.28) | 0.02; 1.12 (0.0440) | 14.95 (0.22) | 0.33 (0.19) | −0.04; 0.71 (0.0831) | −0.24 (0.34) | −0.91; 0.43 (0.4875) | |
6-month follow-up | 14.32 (0.40) | 0.38 (0.27) | −0.14; 0.90 (0.1493) | 14.91 (0.24) | 0.29 (0.22) | −0.15; 0.73 (0.1911) | −0.09 (0.35) | −0.77; 0.59 (0.7969) | |
PSS | Baseline | 17.36 (1.32) | 20.14 (0.68) | ||||||
9-week follow-up | 14.34 (1.17) | −3.02 (0.93) | −4.84; −1.21 (0.0011) | 16.26 (0.68) | −3.88 (0.60) | −5.06; −2.71 (0.0000) | −0.86 (1.10) | −3.02; 1.30 (0.4355) | |
6-month follow-up | 15.84 (1.90) | −1.53 (1.67) | −4.79; 1.74 (0.3594) | 15.52 (0.83) | −4.63 (0.94) | −6.48; −2.78 (0.0000) | −3.10 (1.92) | −6.85; 0.66 (0.1058) | |
PRS 3 | Baseline | NA | 178.70 (3.90) | Reference | NA | ||||
9-week follow-up | 196.46 (3.13) | 17.76 (3.48) | 10.95; 24.57 (0.0000) | ||||||
6-month follow-up | 194.82 (3.63) | 16.12 (3.99) | 8.30; 23.94 (0.0001) |
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Høegmark, S.; Andersen, T.E.; Grahn, P.; Mejldal, A.; Roessler, K.K. The Wildman Programme—Rehabilitation and Reconnection with Nature for Men with Mental or Physical Health Problems—A Matched-Control Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11465. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111465
Høegmark S, Andersen TE, Grahn P, Mejldal A, Roessler KK. The Wildman Programme—Rehabilitation and Reconnection with Nature for Men with Mental or Physical Health Problems—A Matched-Control Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11465. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111465
Chicago/Turabian StyleHøegmark, Simon, Tonny Elmose Andersen, Patrik Grahn, Anna Mejldal, and Kirsten K. Roessler. 2021. "The Wildman Programme—Rehabilitation and Reconnection with Nature for Men with Mental or Physical Health Problems—A Matched-Control Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11465. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111465
APA StyleHøegmark, S., Andersen, T. E., Grahn, P., Mejldal, A., & Roessler, K. K. (2021). The Wildman Programme—Rehabilitation and Reconnection with Nature for Men with Mental or Physical Health Problems—A Matched-Control Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(21), 11465. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111465